Transcript Santilli’s New Fuels as Sources of Clean Combustion

Santilli’s New Fuels as Sources
of Clean Combustion
I. B. Das Sarma
Jhulelal Institute of Technology
Off. Koradi Octroi Post
Lonara, Nagpur-441 111
INDIA
E-mail: [email protected]
Acknowledgment

The financial support for this work from The R. M. Santilli
Foundation, Palm Harbor, Florida is gratefully acknowledged.

The author is grateful to Prof. A.A. Bhalekar & Dr. V.M. Tangde for
conducting ‘One day motivational workshop on Santilli’s New
Mathematics’ at Smt. Bhagwati Chaturvedi College of Engineering,
Nagpur, INDIA.

Author is also grateful for the constant encouragement and
valuable guidance in preparing this paper and presentation by Professor R. M. Santilli
 Professor C. Corda
 Professor R. Anderson
 Professor A. A. Bhalekar
 Dr. V. M. Tangde
2
Contents
Introduction
 Modern Scenario of energy
 Hadronic Energy of Non-nuclear Type
 Hadronic Energy of Nuclear Type
 Conclusion

3
Insufficiencies of Quantum Mechanics

It is based on Galilei and Poincaré symmetries, which
are applicable only for Keplerian systems, requiring a
nucleus.
So, according to Prof. Santilli, Quantum mechanics
cannot be exactly valid for nuclear structures because
nuclei do not have their own nucleus to revolve around, as
a consequence of which the basic Galilean and Poincaré
symmetries must be broken, thus causing incontrovertible
deviations from quantum axioms.
4

Hamiltonian nature of quantum mechanics restricts the
understanding of nuclear forces. Hence, to represent the
a nuclear force with a potential up to 35 different
potentials have been added without achieving the
required exact representation.

The linear, local and Hamiltonian character of quantum
mechanics is effective for the classification of hadrons
under their point-like approximation, but is inadequate
for structure related problems due to expected nonlinear,
nonlocal and non-Hamiltonian effects occurring within
the hyper dense media inside hadrons.
5
Thus, Prof. Santilli states:
According to the standard model, at the time of the
neutron synthesis from protons and electrons inside a
star, the permanently stable protons and electrons simply
disappear from the universe to be replaced by conjectural
quarks, and then the proton and the electron simply
reappear at the time of the neutron decay. These beliefs
are simply repugnant to me because excessively
irrational, thus showing the conduction of particle physics
via academic authority, rather than scientific veritas.
6
The theory fails to explain the following even for the
simplest nucleus of deuterium:
 The spin 1 of deuterium since quantum axioms
require that the single stable bound state of two
particles with spin ½, (proton and neutron) must be
the singlet state with spin zero.

To represent the magnetic moment of deuterium.

The stability of unstable neutron when coupled to
proton in a nucleus (e.g. deuterium).
T½ of neutron ≅15 minutes.
7

Quantum Mechanics is inapplicable for explaining the
synthesis of neutron from a proton and an electron as
occurring in stars because, in this case the Schrödinger
equation becomes inconsistent.

It is unsuitable for all processes that are irreversible over
time, like nuclear fusions, because quantum mechanics is
reversible over time, thus admitting the time reversal
event which violates energy conservation, causality and
other basic laws.

It also fails to explain irreversible non-nuclear process like
combustion.
8
Insufficiencies of Quantum Chemistry

It cannot predict quantitatively how two identical electrons
attract each other to form a bond (as in a molecule).

It cannot be exactly valid for the study of chemical reactions.
E.g. In case of the strictly irreversible reaction
H2+O → H2O
Quantum chemistry admits finite probability for the time
reversal event, i.e. the spontaneous disintegration of the
water molecule into its original constituents,
H2O → H2 + O
However, this concept violates the principle of conservation
of the energy.
9

Exact representation of molecular binding energies
could be provided only by screening of the Coulomb
potential (i.e. multiplication of fundamental
Coulomb potential between two valence electrons,
V = e2/r, by an arbitrary function f(r) of completely
unknown origin).
e2
V ' (r )  f ( r )
r
f(r) was obtained from experimental data and
screened
Coulomb
potentials
accurately
represented binding energies.
10
However…

The conversion of Coulomb potential to its screened form
requires a non-unitary transform.
So, the screening of Coulomb potential causes major
departures from the unitary structure of quantum mechanics.

The Coulomb potential is a fundamental invariant of quantum
mechanics. Consequently, its screening causes the breaking of
the fundamental Galilei symmetry under which conditions
quantum mechanics cannot be accurate.

It is well known that the quantum of energy is solely possible
for the Coulomb law and that any quantization of the energy
is impossible for screened potentials.
11
Need for Hadronic Mechanics

Quantitative treatment of neutron synthesis from
protons and electrons (occurring in stars).

Quantitative studies on the possible utilization of the
inextinguishable energy contained inside the neutron.

The study of new clean energies and fuels that
cannot even be conceived with the 20th century
doctrines and other basic advances.
12

Quantum mechanics was conceived for the study of
interactions among particles at large mutual distances which
is representable with differential equations defined over a
finite set of isolated points.

Hadronic mechanics was formulated for the study of the
additional nonlocal-integral interactions due to mutual wave
overlapping. The interactions are defined over an entire
volume and cannot be effectively approximated by their
abstraction into finite number of isolated points.

The same interaction cannot be derived from a Hamiltonian
or non-linear in their wave functions or their derivatives1.
1. Elements of Hadronic Mechanics, Vol. I, Mathematical Foundation, R.M.
Santilli, 2nd Edition, 1995, Naukova Dumka Publishers, Kiev.
13
Hadronic Mechanics
Valid for inter-particle
distance within 1 fm
Valid at atomic
level of distances &
structure
Macroscopic
bodies in motion
≤10-13 cm
>10-13 – 10– 8 cm
>10-3 cm
Hadronic
Mechanics
Quantum
Mechanics
Newtonian
Mechanics
Prof. Santilli has founded more fundamental theory
of the universe, named after the composite nuclear
particle hadron as Hadronic Mechanics.
14
New Mathematics
Prof. Santilli states that: There cannot be a really new
theory without a really new mathematics, and there cannot
be a really new mathematics without new numbers.
He formulated various new mathematics that coincides at
the abstract realization-free level with traditional
mathematics, discovering new realizations of preexisting abstract mathematical axioms, with
consequential far reaching mathematical and physical
implications.
15
Isomathematics

It is developed for quantitative invariant treatment of
non-local, non-potential and non-linear interactions
among extended particles under mutual penetration at
short distance is today known under the name of
Isomathematics.

‘Iso’ denotes the preservation of conventional axioms2.
2. Iso-, Geno-, Hyper-mechanics for Matter, their Isoduals, for Antimatter, and their Novel Applications in
Physics, Chemistry and Biology, R.M. Santilli, Extended version of invited plenary talks at the Conference of
the International Association for Relativistic Dynamics, Washington, D.C., June 2002; International Congress
of Mathematicians, Hong Kong, August 2002; International Conference on Physical Interpretation of
Relativity Theories, London, September 2002.
16
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.

Isomathematics was initially proposed by Prof. R. M.
Santilli3 in 1978 and subsequently studied by several
mathematicians, theoreticians and experimentalists4-7 .

Valence bonds include conventional local differential
Coulomb interactions, as well as nonlocal, nonlinear and
nonpotential interactions due to wave overlappings.

The former interactions can be represented with the
conventional Hamiltonian, but the latter interactions can
be represented via a generalization of the basic unit as a
condition to achieve invariance (since the unit is the basic
invariant of any theory).
R. M. Santilli: Hadronic J. 1, 224 (1978).
J. L. Lagrange, Mechanique Analytique (1788), reprinted by Gauthier-Villars, Paris (1888).
S. Lie, Over en Classe Geometriske Transformationer, English translation by E. Trell, Algebras Groups
and Geometries 15, 395 (1998).
R. M. Santilli, Suppl. Nuovo Cimento 6, 1225 (l968).
R. M. Santilli, Hadronic J. 3, 440 (l979).
17

Isomathematics preserves all the axioms of 20th century Liealgebra but introduces the non-unitary multiplication unit (a
scalar or tensorial quantity).

Thus, all the ordinary units can be istopically lifted
(converted to its isotopic equivalent) by multiplying it with
an isounit, Î.

Thus, divergent parameters can be made convergent i.e.
achieving the broadening of unitary-canonical theories into
non-unitary, non-canonical extensions

Isounit does not have an unit value as in ordinary
mathematics but may have any positive value.
I = +1→Î

ˆI  1  0
The positive definiteness of iso-unit, Î is given by
Tˆ
where
Tˆ  isotopicelement
18
19
Genomathematics
The irreversibility of the macroscopic reality cannot be
quantified by isomathematics is that because the Lie-Santilli
isotheory is structurally reversible (theory coincides with its
time reversal image for reversible Hamiltonians and isounits).
 The resolution of this insufficiency required suitable
broadening of the Lie-Santilli isotheory. In turn, the
achievement of an invariant formulation of the latter theory
required the construction of a new mathematics that Professor
Santilli formulated8 way back in 1978 under the name of
genomathematics
 The term genotopy means inducing configuration alternately
can be understood as axiom inducing.
 Alteration of the original axioms in favour of covering axioms
admitting the original one as particular case.

8.
R. M. Santilli, On a possible Lie-admissible covering of the Galilei relativity in Newtonian
mechanics for non-conservative and Galilei form-noninvariant systems, Hadronic J., vol. 1, pp.
223 -423, 1978
20

The main idea of genomathematics is the selection of two
different generalized units called genounits, the first Î> for the
ordered multiplication to the right A > B, called forward
genoproduct, and the second <Î for the ordered
multiplicationto the left A < B, called backward genoproduct,
according to the general rules.

The point at the foundations of the Lie-admissible theory is
that the multiplications of the same numbers in different
orderings are generally different, α > β ≠ β < α

So, this indicates possibility of introducing two orderd iso
units called geno units1
21

The 1st expression permits dual generaliztion one for
ordering to the right yielding right genofield having elements
aˆ  are called right genonumber.

The one for ordering to the left yielding left genofield having
elements  aˆ are called left genonumber

The two genofields can be denoted with the unified symbol
 ˆ  
F ( aˆ ,, * ) with the understanding that the orderings
can be used only individually1
22
Hypermathematics

Genonumbers were extended to yet new numbers today known as
Santilli's hyperreal, hypercomplex and hyperquaternionic numbers to
the right and to the left, or generically as hypernumbers that are
multivalued, namely, not only the units and products to the right and
to the left are different, but the hyperunit has an ordered set of values
and, consequently, the multiplication yields an ordered set of results.
E.g.: the hyper-lifting of
results in


Santilli's hypernumbers are different than hyperstructures because
the former use conventional operations while the latter use abstract
operations.
Santilli's hypernumbers verify all axioms of a field, while
conventional hyperstructures do not generally admit any unit at all,
thus not being generally formulated over a field, with consequential
severe restrictions in applications.
23

Genotheories are insufficient to represent the entire nature as they
are unable to represent biological structures such as a cell or a
seashell. The latter systems are indeed open-nonconservativeirreversible, yet they possess a structure dramatically more complex
than that of a nonconservative Newtonian system. A study of the issue
has revealed that the limitation of genotheories is due to their singlevalued character.

As an illustration, mathematical
treatments complemented with
computer visualization have
established that the shape of sea
shells can be well described via
the conventional single-valued
three-dimensional Euclidean
space and geometry according to
the empirical perception of our
three Eustachian tubes.
A computer visualization of seashells
studied by Illert that varies the
isoeuclidean representation of seashell's
growth while the conventional Euclidean
representation does not.
24

Hyper-mathematics is characterized by the following
hyperunits expressed for the lifting of the Euclidean unit

Mathematics is not 3m-dimensional, but rather it is 3dimensional and m-multi-valued. Such a feature permits the
increase of the reference axes, e.g., for m = 2 we have the six
axes, while achieving compatibility with our sensory
perception because at the abstract, realization-free level.

The hypermathematics characterized by hyperunit is indeed
3-dimensional.
25
Modern Scenario of Energy
Energy requirements is being mostly fulfilled by the
conventional source of energy i.e. molecular combustion of
fossil fuels, hydrogen or nuclear fission.
 Fossil fuel combustion generates large amount of green house
gases like CO2, hydrocarbons, etc.
 Hydrogen combustion depletes atmospheric O2 by forming
H2O.
 Nuclear fission generates large amount of nuclear waste
risking ecosystem and life.

26
27
Energy
Sources
Conventional
Energy Sources
Non-conventional
Energy Sources
Thermal Power
Solar Power
Nuclear Power
Wind Power
Hydel Power
Tidal Power
Geo-thermal Power
Ocean-thermal Power
28
Clean energy is obtained by harnessing renewable energy
sources like solar, wind, geothermal, tidal, etc.
They are generally dependent on geographical locations.
Also the power generated cannot be stored efficiently due to
lack of efficient battery technology.
The modern day demand is that of clean energy source,
which is cheap and abundant.
The fuels developed should be such that can be used in
existing engines without any or major modifications.
This requirement is fulfilled by changing the approach from
quantum mechanics to hadronic mechanics to hadronic
chemistry.
29
Hadronic Fuels
Non-nuclear Type
Nuclear Type
(Magnecular Combustion)
MagneGas
MagneHydrogen
MagneWater
Intermediate Controlled
Nuclear Fusion (ICNF)
Stimulated decay of
neutron
30
Non-nuclear Type Hadronic Fuel
(Magnecular Combustion)
31
Hydrogen

Two H-atoms placed adjacent
to each other without overlap
of electron wave packets. They
show conventional spherical
charge distribution around
their respective nucleus.

Isochemical model of H2
molecule with a stable isoelectronium at absolute zero
revolving in the oo-shaped
orbital
32
The new interactions at the foundations of hadronic mechanics originating
from mutual contact and penetration of the wavepackets of particles at short
distances that are non-Hamiltonian because non-linear, non-local and nonpotential, thus requiring a non-unitary lifting of quantum mechanics,
including its mathematics, physical laws and experimental verifications9.
9.
I. Gandzha and J. Kadeisvily; New Sciences For A New Era: Mathematical, Physical and Chemical
Discoveries of Ruggero Maria Santilli; Sankata Printing Press, Kathmandu, Nepal, (2011).
33
A schematic view of the main mechanism underlying the
creation of magnecules, here illustrated for the case of the
hydrogen molecule.
34





It consists in the use of sufficiently strong external magnetic fields
which can progressively eliminate all rotations, thus reducing the
hydrogen molecule to a configuration which, at absolute zero degrees
temperature, can be assumed to lie in a plane.
The planar configuration of the electron orbits then implies the
manifestation of their magnetic moment which would be otherwise
absent.
The r.h.s. of the above picture outlines the geometry of the magnetic
field in the immediate vicinity of an electric arc as in hadronic
molecular reactors.
The circular configuration of the magnetic field lines around the
electric discharge, the tangential nature of the symmetry axis of the
magnetic polarization of the hydrogen atoms with respect to said
circular magnetic lines, and the consideration of hydrogen atoms at
orbital distances from the electric arc 10−8 cm, resulting in extremely
strong magnetic fields proportional to (10−8)−2 = 1016 Gauss, thus
being ample sufficient to create the needed polarization.
The reason for these results is the intrinsic geometry of the
PlasmaArcFlowTM
35
Santilli Magnecules
The search for a new bond between stable clusters of same
atoms/molecules composing fossil fuels under the following:
 CONDITION 1: The new bond should be weaker than the
valence bond as a necessary condition to decrease pollutants
 CONDITION 2: The new weaker bond should allow the
formation of clusters that are stable at industrially used storage
values of temperature and pressure,
e.g., those for methane; and
 CONDITION 3: The new, weaker and stable bond should
decompose itself at the combustion temperature to optimize the
energy released by the combustion.
These conditions could be fulfilled by a novel chemical species
called ‘Santilli Magnecules’ or ‘Magnecules’.
36


An isolated conventional spherical configuration of H-atom at
absolute zero degree temperature shows forces due to
electric charge of electron

electric charge of proton

intrinsic magnetic moment of electron

intrinsic magnetic moment of proton.
The same H-atom when its peripheral electron orbit is polarized
into a plane, a fifth field10 due to the magnetic dipole moment
caused by the rotation of the electron in its planar orbit emerges.
d
10.
The new fuels with magnecular structure, Ruggero Maria Santilli, International
Academic Press, 2005
37




Magnecules, thus are novel chemical species having at least one
magnecular bond other than usual covalent bond.
‘–’ denotes covalent bond and ‘×’ denotes magnecular bond
The atoms are held together by magnetic fields originating due to
toroidal polarization of the atomic electron orbits.
The rotation of the electrons within the toroid creates the magnetic
field which is absent for the same atom with conventional spherical
distribution of electron orbitals.

The oo-shaped orbital of
isoelectronium, under an
external strong magnetic field
gets polarized. The two H atoms
acquire parallel but opposite
magnetic polarities with null
value at sufficient distance. The
toroidal distribution of the
isoelectronium orbital due to
the isouncertainty principle of
hadronic mechanics.
38
When two such polarized atoms are sufficiently close to each
other and in north-south-north-south alignment, the resulting
total force between the two atoms is attractive.
 This polarization requires high magnetic field.
 At atomic distances from electric arcs of 1000 A of current, the
magnetic field is of the order of 1011 Gauss, which is sufficient
to polarize atomic orbitals into toroids for magnecular
coupling.

Conceptual diagram of an
elementary magnecule comprising
two identical atoms whose bond is
entirely of magnecular character,
originating from opposing
polarities North-South-NorthSouth of the toroidal distributions
of orbitals, as well as the
polarization of nuclear and
electron magnetic moments.
39
Classification of magnecules
Isomagnecules :
 All single-valued characteristics
 Reversible in time, when characterized by isochemistry

Genomagnecules:
 All single-valued characteristics
 Irreversible in time, when characterized by genochemistry

Hypermagnecules:
 At least one multi-valued characteristic
 Irreversible in time, when characterized by hyperchemistry

40
Structural classification of magnecules
Elementary :
 Composed only of two molecules,
 e.g.: {H – H} × {H – H}; {H – O – H} × {H – O – H} and so on
 Magneplexes :
 Entirely composed of several identical molecules
 e.g.: {H – O – H} × {H – O – H} × {H – O – H} × {H – O – H}
× {H – O – H} × …; and so on
 Magneclusters:
 Composed of several different molecules
 e.g.: {H – H} × {C – O} × {O – C – O} × {C = O} × {H – H}× …;
and so on

41
42
Characteristics of magnecules





Large atomic weights which are ten times or more than the
conventional molecules.
Large peaks in macroscopic percentages in mass spectra,
which do not belong to conventional molecules.
These peaks show same infra-red and ultra-violet signature
as expected from the conventional molecules and/or dimers
constituting the magnecule.
Said infrared and ultraviolet signatures are generally
altered with respect to the conventional versions.
Magnecules have an anomalous adhesion to other
substances.
43





Breaks down into fragments under high energetic collisions,
with subsequent recombination with other fragments and/or
conventional molecules.
They can build up or lose individual atoms, molecules during
collision.
They have an anomalous penetration through other
substances indicating a reduction of the average size of
conventional molecules as expected under magnetic
polarizations.
Gas magnecules show an anomalous solubility in liquids due
to new magnetic bonds between gas and liquid molecules
caused by magnetic induction.
Magnecules can be formed by molecules of immiscible
liquids.
44
A gas with magnecular structure does not follow the ideal
gas law.
 Substances with magnecular structure have anomalous
physical characteristics, as compared to the conventional
molecules.
 Magnecules release more energy in thermochemical
reactions than that released by the same reactions among
unpolarized molecular constituents.
 All the above characteristic features disappear when the
magnecules are brought to a sufficiently high temperature
(Curie Magnecular Temperature), which varies from
species to species.

45
MagneGas

Principle of synthesis of magnecules is similar to the
magnetization of a ferromagnet where the orbits of unbounded
electrons are polarized.

Thus, theoretically any matter whether solid, liquid or gas can
be converted to magnecules provided it is subjected to
sufficiently strong external magnetic field.

So, molecular H2 and O2 gases can be turned into their
respective magnecular structure called MagneHydrogenTM
(MH) and MagneOxygenTM (MO) by subjecting them to strong
external magnetic field.

This field is obtained in a Hadronic reactor.
46
Hadronic Refinery
Santilli hadronic refineries for converting liquid waste into a clean burning,
cost competitive gaseous fuel with magnecular structure. The pressure metal
vessel; the submerged electrodes; the recirculation of the feedstock through
the arc; the external AC-DC converter; the external automatic controls of the
arc; and the collection of the produced magnecular fuel.
47
Six characteristic temperature ranges and
associated regions11
Underwater arc (30 to T >1500 oC
40V DC, 500 to 1000A)
Dissociation of H2O (∼110
kcal/mol), association of CO (∼255
kcal/mol) and CO2 molecules
Region close to arc
800 oC to1500 oC
Association of H2 (∼104kcal/mol)
and H2O
Region close to arc
700 oC to 800 oC
Very small bubbles of CO, H2, CO2,
and H2O gases
Region close to arc
150 oC to 700 oC
Very small bubbles of CO, H2, CO2,
and H2O gases
Region close to arc
100 oC to 150 oC
Association of O2 molecules and
complexes (∼30 kcal/mol), small
and big bubbles of CO, H2, CO2, O2,
and H2O gases
Region far from the arc 70 oC to 100 oC
Association of complexes (∼30
kcal/mol), water condensation, big
bubbles of CO, H2, CO2, and O2 gases
leaving the liquid
11. Structure and Combustion of MagnegasesTM, R. M. Santilli and A. K. Aringazin,
arXiv:physics/0112066v1 [physics.gen-ph] 20 Dec 2001
48
Efficiency of Hadronic Reactor

The efficiency of Hadronic reactor is expressed in two ways
namely Scientific Efficiency and Commercial Efficiency .
Scientific Efficiency is always less than 1 as per the Carnot
theorem.
 However, the Hadronic reactors do not produce energy
sufficient for the entire regeneration of the used electric energy
for various reasons, such as dispersion, very low efficiency of
current electric generators, etc.

49

Regardless of this limitation, the production of MagneGas
(MH) in an electric power plant (to whom the cost of
electricity is zilch) is very advantageous from an energy
viewpoint becauseFor every kW of used energy, they produce at least the equivalent
of 3 kW of thermal energy in MagneGas (MH).
When MH is used as an additive to coal or petroleum combustion,
the H-content of MagneGas can burn at least half of the
combustible components in the plant exhaust that constitute
environmental problems.
There are additional savings (of the order of several millions of
dollars per year) in scrubbing and other means to clean the
exhaust.
50





Thus, Magnegas Corporation has documented evidence that
an electric power plant, by producing MagneGas locally and
injecting it into the flame of the used fossil fuel, can increase
the production of electricity by at least 30% with the same
use of fossil fuel.
The credibility of this statement is evident and due to the fact
that about 60% of the energy of fossil fuels is wasted due to
formation of combustible CO, hydrocarbons and other
contaminants in flue gas.
These combustible exhausts are burnt off when combined
with the H2 in MagneGas.
Hence the indicated 30% gain in the production of electricity
from a given fossil fuel.
MH in fossil fuel decreases its volatility probably due to their
anomalous adsorption, consequently attaining higher
temperature which results in a cleaner combustion. Thus the
consideration of commercial efficiency becomes evident for
all practical purposes.
51
Detection of Magnecules
Appearance of unexpected heavy MS peaks.
 Unknown character of the unexpected MS heavy peaks.
 Lack of IR signature of the unknown MS peaks.
 Changes in IR signatures.
 Changes in magnecular weights.
 Accumulation or emission of individual atoms or
molecules.
 Anomalous adhesion

52
MagneHydrogen





H2 is diamagnetic and cannot acquire a total net magnetic
polarity.
The orbit of each H atom acquires a toroidal polarization
under sufficiently strong external magnetic field.
The opposite magnetic moments of the two H atoms explain
the diamagnetic character of the hydrogen molecule.
Intrinsic magnetic moments of nuclei and electrons of H2
molecule are also polarized.
Creating new chemical species having bigger specific weight
due to formation of new bonds between pairs of individual H
atoms.
53
MagneOxygen
It is formed comparatively easily as oxygen is
paramagnetic.
 So electrons acquire an overall magnetic polarity.
 Significant increase of the specific weight of the
oxygen requires the toroidal polarization of at least
some of the peripheral atomic electrons, along with
total magnetic polarization

54
Magnecular Water (HHO)

HHO gas is magnecular water having
magneclusters like {H × H – O} or {H – H ⨯ O}
magneplexes like {H – O – H} ⨯ {H – O – H}

Prior to Santilli's studies, a gaseous mixture of 2/3
ordinary hydrogen and 1/3 ordinary oxygen gases was
known under the name of Brown gas.

Both HHO and Brown gas does not require atmospheric oxygen
for combustion. Thus, does not deplete of atmospheric oxygen.

However they differ in the fact that the former has anomalous
adsorption property and varying thermal content.
55
Magnecular Combustion
Magnecular combustion results in high energy output due to
weak magnecular bond and stored magnetostatic energy.
 This is exploited for the industrial development of novel clean
fuels such as magnegas.

Combustion of molecular hydrogen and oxygen
H – H + ½ O2 → H2O.
 The homolytic clevage of H2 and O2 molecules for production of
free radicals require 163.7 kcal/mol
 The atom recombination to produce H2O releases 221.25
kcal/mol
 So, the net energy release is 57 kcal/mol.
56
Combustion of magnecular hydrogen
{H × H} + O → H2O


Considering H × H bond dissociation energy to be
zero
The energy output is predicted to be approximately
three times the value predicted by molecular
structures with the same atomic constituents and
combustion temperature.
57
Combustion of magnecules
Magnecule + nO2 → mH2O + kO2 + lCO2 + ... + Δ kcal
n, m, k, l, ... are integers
Magnecule is assumed to consist of both H2 and CO.

This give increased energy released per each H2 molecule.
Energy balance for combustion of magnecule
E[combustion] = mE[H2O]+kE[O2]+lE[CO2]+...−E[magnecule]
E[H2O], E[O2], E[CO2], ... are ground state energies of the
molecular constituents
E[magnecule] is ground state energy of the original
magnecule.
58
Energy balance is calculated using dissociation energy of
the magnecule, D[magnecule].
 However, D[magnecule] is different for magnecules of
different mass and composition.
 In case of chemical reactions, reaction constant K is
considered.
E.g
H2 + ½ O2 → H2O(ΔH = −57.5 kcal, K = 1040 at T = 25 oC)
i.e. total combustion of H2 gas at T = 25 oC.
 Generally, for all highly exothermic reactions (ΔH < −15
kcal/mol), the reaction constant is of high value.
 The opposite direction of the reaction, H2 + ½ O2 ← H2O is
realized only at very high temperatures, at which K < 1.
 K = 1 indicates equilibrium, while K < 1 indicates
backward reaction.

59
The relation between the reaction heat, ΔH and the reaction
constant, K is
− 2.303RT logK = ΔG
where, ΔG =ΔH − TΔS
R = 1.986 cal·K−1 ·mol−1
T is temperature in Kelvin,
ΔS is the entropy of the reaction.
The ΔS is numerically big if the initial reagents have molecular
structures more ordered than the end products, i.e. there is an
increase of entropy S during the reaction.
The above outline on the reaction constant and reaction entropy
helps us to conclude that the combustion of magnegas is
characterized by a very high value of the reaction constant
(perhaps even bigger than K = 1040 at T = 25 oC).
60
Factors favoring Magnecular Combustion
Combustion of magnegas is a highly exothermic reaction as-
 They have a structure more ordered than the combustion
products.
 So, during the combustion there is large increase of the
entropy ΔS > 0, eventually very high value of the reaction
constant K.
However, ΔG is a function of temperature.
For most elements, ΔG of oxidation reactions increases linearly
with the temperature.
So, resulting oxides are less stable at high temperatures than at
low temperatures
e.g. H2O dissociating at high temperature (~1000 oC)
61
However, during oxidation of carbon to carbon monoxide
C + CO2 → 2CO
ΔG decreases with the increase of the temperature.
The number of moles increases about twice during the reaction.
Hence, the entropy increases, ΔS > 0.
Therefore, the CO molecule is more stable at high temperatures
than at low temperatures consequently, a better quality
of the exhaust is obtained at lower original temperatures of
magnegas.
62
High reaction rate
 Combustion of magnecules is faster than the combustion of
their molecular constituents.
 According to Santilli-Shillady isochemical models of molecular
structures H2 and O2 molecules have the usual (spherical)
shape due to rotations in their natural conventional and nonpolarized states.
 However, the isochemical model of the water shows that such
configurations are not suited for the reaction of H and O into
H2O. In particular, the orbitals of H2 and O2require a toroidal
configuration as a condition for their bonding.
 Thus, magnetically polarized molecules of hydrogen and
oxygen have a bigger reaction rate than the same molecules in
un-polarized conditions, since they have a distribution of the
valence electrons more suitable for the reaction itself.
 Evidently, a bigger reaction rate implies a bigger power.
63
 Combustion of a magnecule consisting of H2 and CO, does not
require the necessary previous dissociation of the O2 molecule,
because each O-atom in a magnetically polarized O2 molecule
has necessary orientation required for combustion.
 So, the magnecular structure acts as a catalyst, in which both
O-atoms of the O2 molecule start to react with the nearest pair
H2⨯H2, or H2⨯CO, or CO⨯CO almost simultaneously.
 This also implies that less amount of external energy is needed
to activate the reaction, resulting, in an anomalous energy
release in combustion. (activation energy is supplied by heat)
 So, the combustion of magnegas can be initiated at smaller
temperature, in comparison to that of the simple mixture of
H2 and CO gases.
64
Applications of HHO: Fuel additive






The anomalous adsorption makes it a perfect additive to other
fuels.
The flash point of diesel was found to increase from 75°C to
79°C on purging with HHO.
Anomalous rise of just 4°C or 42°C?
This could be attributed to the magnecular structure of the
HHO which influences to form magnecluster HHO and diesel
molecules, thereby drastically increasing its flash point.
If HHO existed as normal molecular gas then the flash point
would have decreased by half.
The adsorption of the HHO to the diesel molecules is also
expected to significantly reduce the harmful emission of the
original fuel (due to inherent O content) and increases the
thermal output of the fuel in case of combustion.
65
Applications of HHO: Thermal Output






HHO exhibits a wide range of thermal output.
In open air flame temperature is 150°C to large releases of
thermal energy depending on the substance to which the flame
is applied like instantaneous melting of W or bricks requiring
~9000°C.
This anomaly is due to presence of polarized H-atom in the
HHO gas.
Instantaneous melting of bricks9 is only possible due to the
polarized hydrogen contained in the HHO gas which rapidly
penetrates into the deep layers of the brick.
Smaller sectional area, increases penetration.
Polarized H-atoms induces polarization of the brick’s atomic
orbitals, leading to attraction of the polarized H atoms. This
leads to faster penetration within the solid lattice causing
higher reactivity and consequently higher melting temperature.
66
Nuclear Type Hadronic Fuel
(Magnecular Combustion)
67
Basic nuclear processes
Fission
235U
Fusion
1
2
Fission Product 1: A= 90 to 100
Fission Product 2: A= 133 to 143
68
Nuclear Fusion
It has been considered the Holy Grail of energy
 Nuclear fusion can be broadly classified as
 Low energy nuclear fusion or ‘cold fusion’
 Reported by Fleishmann, Pons and Hawkins (1989)
 Major drawback: Non-reproducibility by other
laboratories.
 Reason: Could be due to insufficient energy required to
expose the atomic nuclei from within the covering
atomic electron cloud.

69

High energy nuclear fusion or ‘hot fusion’
 Reported by various laboratories
 Major drawback: Not self sustaining and compound
nucleus undergoes fission leading to formation
radioactive wastes.
 Reason: Atomic electron clouds are completely
stripped off. Kinetic energy of the nuclei are
increased to overcome coulombic barrier and the
energy attained by the compound nucleus is
generally higher than the fission barrier which
results in fission reaction or nuclear decay as
prominent exit channels.

In view of this Santilli proposed new form of nuclear
energy without ionizing radiations and radioactive
waste predicted using hadronic mechanics.
70
Hadronic Energy of Nuclear Type






Nuclear energy conventionally obtained by fission reaction
is hazardous due to generation of high energy ionizing
radiation and radioactive waste.
The shielding from these radiations is cumbersome as well
as expensive.
Disposal of the radioactive waste poses environmental risk.
The fission reactions could be adequately explained by
quantum mechanics by considering the fragments as point
mass.
However, the same theory fails to explain nuclear fusion
because considering the reacting nuclei as point mass was
not possible.
Hence the use of hadronic mechanics to explain nuclear
fusion is necessary.
71
Intermediate Controlled Nuclear Fusion (ICNF)
Basic assumptions proposed by Prof. Santilli are
Nuclear force: Nuclear force can be partly represented with a
Hamiltonian and partly is of non-potential type and cannot be
represented with a Hamiltonian.

Stable nuclei: According to Heisenberg-Santilli Lie-isotopic
equations the sub-nuclear particles are in contact with each other
without appreciable overlap of their wave-functions.
Figure used by Santilli to illustrate that nuclei
have no nuclei of their own and composed of
particles in contact with each other having
mutual penetration of about 10-3 of their
charge distributions. So, the nuclear force is
expected to be partially of potential and
partially of nonpotential type, with ensuing
nonunitary character of the theory, and
related applicability of hadronic mechanics.
72

Unstable nuclei and nuclear fusion: In case of HeisenbergSantilli Lie-admissible equation
dA
i
 ( Aˆ, H )  ARH  HSA
(3)
dt
Hermitean, H represents non-conserved total energy;
Genotopic elements R and S represents non-potential interactions
So, irreversibility is assured.
Lie-admissible branch of hadronic mechanics is ideally suited to
represent the decay of unstable nuclei and nuclear fusions, since both
are irreversible over time.

Neutron synthesis: Neutron is assumed (originally
conjectured by Rutherford) to be compressed hydrogen atom.
p+ + a + e - → n
where ‘a’ is Santilli’s etherino (conventional Hilbert space)
73

Don Borghi’s experiment and Santilli’s hadronic mechanics
appropriately explains the Rutherford’s conjecture on
neutron as a compressed hydrogen atom.
An original drawing used by Santilli to
illustrate physical differences between
the hydrogen atom and the neutron
synthesis from a proton and an
electron (occurring in stars).
74
The main interactions absent
in the hydrogen atom, but
present in the neutron the
nonlinear, nonlocal and
nonpotential interactions due
to deep wave overlapping of
extended particles. Their
non-Hamiltonian character
mandates a nonunitary
covering of quantum
mechanics.
75
An illustration of the support by the industry of research on new
clean energies requiring suitable coverings of 20th century
doctrines, depicting the conception by Michael McDonnough,
President of BetaVoltaic, Inc., of the Rutherford-Santilli neutron
that is at the foundation of its possible stimulated decay and
related new clean energies.
76

Nuclear structure: Proton is the only stable particle and
neutron is unstable comprising of proton and electron.
Santilli assumed that nuclei are a collection of protons and
neutrons, in first approximation, while at a deeper level a
collection of mutated protons and electrons.
77
Controlled Nuclear Fusion (CNF)

It is systematic energy releasing nuclear fusion whose reaction
rate is controllable via one or more mechanisms capable of
performing the engineering optimization of the applicable laws.

The CNF is governed by Santilli's laws for controlled nuclear
fusions:
The orbitals of peripheral atomic electrons are controlled such that
nuclei are systematically exposed.
CNF occurs when nuclei spins are either in singlet planar coupling
or triplet axial coupling.
A schematic view of the only two
stable couplings permitted by
hadronic mechanics for nuclear
fusions; the singlet planar coupling (A)
and the triplet axial coupling (B) . All
other spin configurations have been
proved to produce strongly repulsive
forces under which no CNF is possible.
78
 The most probable CNF are those occurring at threshold energies
and without the release of massive particles.
 CNF requires trigger, an external mechanism that forces exposed
nuclei to come in fm range.
 Magnecules have systematic and controlled exposure of nuclei which
have singlet planar or triplet axial coupling.
The ICNF proposed by Santilli are of the generic type
where, A is the atomic number
Z is the nuclear charge
JP is the nuclear angular momentum with parity
u is the nuclear energy in amu units
TR is trigger mechanism (high voltage DC arc in hadronic reactor)
79
Synthesis of nitrogen from carbon and deuterium by ICNF

It was expected in nature due to lightning.
C(12,6,O+,12.0000)+D(2,1,1+,2.0141)+TR→N(14,7,1+,14.0030)+Heat

ΔE = 0.0111 amu = 10.339MeV:
Threshold energy is supplied which is just sufficient to expose the
atomic nuclei from within the electron cloud.

As the energy is not very high the resulting compound nucleus has
excitation energy lesser than that required for particular or gammaemission.

The above reaction is carried out in sealed tanks called hadronic
reactors.

This synthesis is of industrial importance because it yields 1010 BTU
of energy per hour.
80
A schematic view of the Hadronic Reactor, based on an upgradation
of the Hadronic Refineries showing emphasis on the production
and use of a magnecular fuel in the latter, to the production and use
of heat in the former.
81

The electric arc polarizes carbon and hydrogen atoms by forming the
C × H × H magnecule, having triplet axial spin coupling.

Under a suitable trigger, the magnecule C × H × H should yield a nucleus
with A=14, Z=8, JP=1+

However, that does not exist (since O(14, 8) has spin J = 0).
So, according to Prof. Santilli the nature synthesizes a neutron from
proton, electron and etherino as,
C×H×H→C(12, 6, 0) + 2 x p+ + e- + a →C(12, 6, 0) + H(2, 1, 1) → N(14, 8, 1)


The fusion reaction taking place in hadronic reactor using deuterium as
fuel have shown to yield clean energy without formation of any
radioactive species or ionizing radiations.
82
Examples of ICNF
O(18,8,0+,17.9991) + C(12,6,0+,12.0000) + TR →
Si(30,14,0+,29.9737) + ΔE
Δ E = 0.0254 u







The reaction verifies all conservation laws.
The whitish powder on the edge of carbon electrodes suggests
synthesis of silica.
The controlled fusion of oxygen and carbon into silica was done
because CO2 (green house gas) is a hadronic fuel for the production of
clean energy.
Hadronic reactor can be filled up with CO2 at pressure. The DC arc
efficiently separates it into O2 and C.
O2 and C burns to produce CO that, in the presence of oxygen and an
arc, reproduces CO2.
Thus recovering the energy used for the separation of CO2.
However, along with the conventional combustion, the hadronic
reactor produces a net positive energy output due to the fusion of
oxygen and carbon into silica.
83
C(12,6,0+,12.0000) + He(4, 2,0+,4.0026) + TR →
O(16,8,0+,15.9949) +ΔE
E = 0.0077 u
 It also verifies all conservation laws.

The interior of the reactor was cleaned, and various
components replaced; a vacuum was pulled out of the interior
chamber; the reactor was filled up with commercial grade
helium at 100 psi.

It was found that oxygen content decreased to a nondetectable amount but the CO increased from a nondetectable amount to 4:24%.
84
In the first step, the oxygen is
synthesized at the tip of the DC
arc when hitting the carbon in the
cathode surface.
The ensuing large local heat
production rapidly expels the
synthesized oxygen from the DC
arc, thus preventing any
additional nuclear synthesis.
The creation of CO is
consequential due to the great
affinity of carbon and oxygen.
12. Additional confirmation of intermediate controlled
nuclear fusion without harmful radiations or waste,
Ruggero Maria Santilli, Proceedings of the Third
International Conference on Lie-admissible Treatment of
Irreversible Processes (ICLATIP - 3), Kathmandu
University, Nepal, April (2011) pages 163-177
View of the scorched electrode12
85
Particle Type Hadronic Energy: Stimulated Decay
of Neutron

Low binding energy resulting in photo-disintegration of
nuclei due to 2.22 MeV and 2.62 MeV photons
respectively are well-known.

Similarly, stimulated decay of neutrons is also a well-known
phenomenon. The prediction and its quantitative treatment can be
done by hadronic mechanics.
86
According to Prof. Santilli, neutron is an unlimited source of
energy because it decays releasing highly energetic electron
and neutrino that can be easily trapped with a metal shield.
 It is well-known that an isolated neutron is unstable and has
half life of ~15 minutes.
 However, as a constituent of nuclei, it shows high stability
which has been attributed to a strong nuclear force of
attraction.
 The neutron shows stimulated decay as
TR + n → p+ + β–
where β– has spin zero for the conservation law of the angular
momentum.
β– also be considered either as an electron and a neutrino or as
an electron and an antietherino with opposing spin 1/2. This
difference is irrelevant for the stimulated decay of the neutron.

87
Mechanism for stimulated decay
 Resonating photon hitting a nucleus excites the isoelectron inside a
neutron irrespective of whether the photon penetrates or not inside
the neutron.
 The excited isoelectron leaves the neutron structure, thus causing its
stimulated decay.
 This is due to the fact that hadronic mechanics predicts only one
energy level for the proton and the electron in conditions of total
mutual immersion (as in neutron).
 Range of hadronic mechanics is given by the radius of neutron (1 fm).
 Thus, the excited isoelectron excites the proton and reassumes its
conventional quantum features when moving in vacuum.
 Numerous additional triggers are predicted by hadronic mechanics
such as photons with a wavelength equal to the neutron size. Here, the
whole neutron is excited, rather than the isoelectron in its interior, but
the result is always the stimulated decay.
88
Double beta decay
In this typical example of double decay first reaction is stimulated
and the second is spontaneous9.
The original isotope should1) Admit stimulated decay of at least one of its peripheral
neutrons via one photon with a resonating frequency verifying
all conservation laws of the energy, angular momentum, etc.
2) The new nucleus formed should undergo spontaneous beta
decay so that with one resonating photon there is production of
two electrons whose kinetic energy is trapped with a metal
shield to produce heat.
89
3) The original isotope is metallic so that, following the emission
of two electrons, it acquires an electric charge suitable for the
production of a DC current between the metallic isotope and
the metallic shield.
4) The energy balance is positive.
5) The initial and final isotopes are light, natural and stable
elements so that the new energy is clean (since the electrons
can be easily trapped with a thin metal shield), and produce
non-radioactive waste.
90
E.g. double beta decay of the Mo(100, 42, 0)
γr (0, 0, 1) + Mo (100, 42, 0) → Tc (100, 43, 1) + β– (0, -1, 0)
Tc (100, 43, 1) → Ru (100, 44, 0) + β– (0, -1, 0)
a) Mo(100, 42, 0) is naturally stable with mass 99.9074771
amu
b) Tc(100, 43) has mass 99.9076576 amu and is naturally
unstable with spontaneous decay into Ru(100, 44, 0) and
half life of 15.8 s
c) Ru(100, 44) is naturally stable with mass 99.9042197 amu.
Although the mass of Mo(100, 42, 0) is smaller than that of
Tc(100, 43, 1), yet the conservation of energy can be verified
with a resonating frequency of 0.16803 MeV (obtained for
n=1/7).
91
But the mass of the original isotope is bigger than that of the final
isotope for a value much bigger than that of the resonating photon,
with usable hadronic energy (HE) power nuclear reaction
HE = M(100, 42) – M(100, 44) – E(γ) – 2 x E(e)
= 3.034 – 0.184 – 1.022MeV = 1.828MeV
where Santilli subtracts the conventional rest energy of the two
electrons because it is not usable as a source of energy in this case.
Under the assumptions of using a coherent beam with resonating
photons hitting a sufficient mass of Mo(100, 42, 0) suitable to
produce 1020 stimulated nuclear transmutations per hour, we have
the following:
 Hadronic production of heat
2x1020 MeV/h = 3x104 BTU/h,
 Hadronic production of electricity
2x1020 e/h = 200C/h=55 mA.
92
Conclusion
The clean and sustainable energy requirements can be met
using hadronic chemistry.
 Magnecular combustion can be considered superior to
molecular combustion due to its weak bond, stored
magnetostatic energy and highly ordered structure.
 ICNF seems to be more promising than hot or cold fusion in
terms of reproducibility and energy input to output ratio.
 Preliminary studies indicate that stimulated beta decay also
holds promising results in clean energy harnessing.

93
THANK YOU
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