Transcript Ad populum
Rhetoric Rhetoric Rhetoric is the art of using words to persuade in writing or speaking All types of writing seek to persuade In writing arguments, consciously structure writing using logical lines of reasoning such as order of importance, chain of reasoning, cause & effect, rebuttal, concession/refutation. Purpose of using effective rhetoric This might be to: Support a cause Promote a change Refute a theory Stimulate interest Win argument Arouse sympathy Provoke anger Audience Questions to ask oneself before writing: Who exactly is the audience? What do they know? What do they believe? What do they expect? How will the audience disagree with me? What will they want me to address or answer? Should I use language that is formal, factual, and objectiveor familiar, anecdotal, and personal? Modes of Discourse Logos: logical appeals Pathos: emotional appeals Ethos: appeal to credibility/ethics Logos You appeal to logos if you: Cite commonly held beliefs Allude to history, religious texts, literature, mythology Draw analogies/create metaphors Provide evidence Quote research Pathos You appeal to pathos if you: Use language that involves the senses Include a bias or prejudice Include an anecdote Include connotative language Explore euphemisms Use description Use figurative language Develop tone Experiment with informal language Ethos Show written voice in the argument Make the audience believe that the writer is trustworthy Demonstrate that the writer did his research Present a carefully crafted and edited argument Demonstrate that the writer knows the audience and respects them Show concern about communicating with the audience Convince the audience that the author is reliable and knowledgeable Logical Fallacies Do not claim too much Do not oversimplify complex issues Support your argument with concrete evidence and specific proposals Logical fallacies Ad hominem: “to the individual,” the target person’s characteristics are attacked, instead of the argument Logical fallacies Ad populum: “to the crowd,” a misconception that a widespread occurrence of something is assumed to make an idea true/right Logical fallacies Begging the question: taking for granted something that really needs proving Logical fallacies Circular reasoning: trying to prove one idea with another idea that is too similar to the first idea Logic moves backward in its attempt to move forward Logical fallacies Either/or reasoning: the tendency to see an issue as having only two sides Logical fallacies Hasty generalization: drawing a general and premature conclusion on the basis of only one or two cases Logical fallacies Non sequitur: “it does not follow,” an inference or conclusion that does not follow established premises or evidence Logical fallacies Post hoc: “after this, therefore because of this,” assuming that an incident that precedes another is the cause of the 2nd incident Logical fallacies Propaganda: writing or images that seek to persuade through emotional appeal rather than logical proof; written or visual texts that describe or depict using connotative words or images without justification Modes of discourse Describe the variety, conventions, and purposes of writing and speaking Modes of Discourse Description: the traditional classification of discourse that depicts images verbally and arranges those images in a logical pattern Modes of Discourse Narration: the classification of discourse that tells a story or relates an event. Narration generally tells what, when, and where it happened. Modes of Discourse Exposition: one of the traditional classifications of discourse that has a function to inform or to instruct or to present ideas and general truths objectively. Exposition can use: Modes of Discourse Comparison: showing a subject more clearly by showing how it is similar to something else Contrast: which ways the subject is unlike another subject Cause and effect Modes of Discourse Classification: one of the traditional ways of thinking about a subject. Classification identifies the subject as a part of a larger group with shared features Definition: places a subject into an appropriate group and then differentiates the subject from the other sections of the group. In prose, definitions are often extended by illustrations and examples. Classical Argumentative Scheme Pt. 1: Introductory Paragraph Catch interest Present the issue or topic with concrete image or anecdote Provide any relevant background information Define pertinent terms State claims Classical Argumentative Scheme Pt. 2: Confirmation Paragraphs This is the most important and longest section of the argument It provides the reasons and evidence of a writer’s claim This section is the body of the essay that shows the logical development of the argument Classical Argumentative Scheme Pt. 3: Concession and Refutation This first briefly recognizes and then at length argues against opposing viewpoints by finding weaknesses within the opposing reasons, facts, testimony, or logical development. It is the “yes…but” part of the argument Classical Argumentative Scheme This first briefly recognizes and then at length argues against opposing viewpoints by finding weaknesses within the opposing reasons, facts, testimony, or logical development. It is the “yes…but” part of the argument “Yes” is the concession “But” is the refutation Classical Argumentative Scheme This allows writers to grant validity to or acknowledge opposing views Ideas of concession often appear as subordinated thoughts in dependent clauses of the sentence Classical Argumentative Scheme Pt. 3: Concluding Paragraph Wrap up the argument Restate the claim Provide a new appeal to needs of values Enrich with additional commentary Voice a final plea for readers to take action or to change thinking Refrain from repeating any information