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The Relational Database Model
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Objectives
• To learn the basic relational database components
and concepts.
• To become familiar with the relational table's
components and characteristics.
• To learn how keys are used in the relational database
environment.
• To introduce the relational database operators.
• To develop a simple data dictionary.
• To examine basic entity relationships.
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What is a relational database
• Logical view of data is maintained by
letting each entity set be contained in a
separate table.
• These tables are then linked through
the use of shared attributes.
• Controlled redundancy to maintain
relationships and data integrity.
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Example Case Study
• Business called Videos R Us
• Sell Videos via mail order
• Sample use cases:
– Place an Order
– Add/Update Titles
• Started small, so developed non-relational database,
with one primary screen
• Business growing, has problems with Database
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Order Form for Videos R Us
Customer Number:
Order date:
First Name:
Last Name:
Street:
City, State, Zip:
Phone:
Item Shipped?
Item Number:
Price:
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Table of Video Database
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Unnecessary Duplicated Data and
Data Consistency
• A customer’s name, address and phone number are
duplicated for every video they order
• A video’s title is duplicated every time the item is
ordered
• Consistency is hard to maintain
• No way to ensure that duplicated data is entered
consistently
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Data Insertion Anomaly
• Currently, Video store prepares catalog of
forthcoming titles by hand (manually)
• Now wishes to get list of forthcoming titles form
the database and generate the catalog
• Problems:
– Database does not contain all needed information (e.g.
synopsis of video
– No way to enter data about video unless someone
ordered it!
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Data Deletion Anomaly
• What if customer orders only one video
• Late, video is discontinued by the
Distributor
• Store wants to delete all references to the
item from its database, because the item is
no longer available
• Customer information is also deleted
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Meaningful Identifiers
• Meaning is coded into the identifier (e.g.
Zip code)
• What if customer moves?
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The Relational Model
• The relational model was formally introduced by Dr. E. F. Codd
in 1970 and has evolved since then, through a series of writings.
• The model provides a simple, yet rigorously defined, concept of
how users perceive data.
• The relational model represents data in the form of twodimension tables.
• Each table in the represents some real-world person, place,
thing, or event about which information is collected.
• A relational database is a collection of two-dimensional tables.
• The organization of data into relational tables is known as the
logical view of the database.
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Relational Databases
• Basic concepts
– Data model: organize data as tables
– A relational database is a set of tables
• Advantages
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–
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•
Simple concepts
Solid mathematical foundation (set theory)
Powerful query languages
Efficient query optimization strategies
Design theory
Industry standard
– Relational model
– SQL language
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What is Relational Database?
• In the relational model, a database is a collection of relational
tables.
• A relational table is a flat file composed of a set of named
columns and an arbitrary number of unnamed rows.
• The columns of the tables contain information about the table.
• The rows of the table represent occurrences of the "thing"
represented by the table.
• A data value is stored in the intersection of a row and
• column.
• Each named column has a domain, which is the set of values
that may appear in that column.
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Selected Examples from:
Database Management
Services,
The University of Texas at Austin,
Computation Center,
Website
"http://www.utexas.edu/cc/dbms/
Notation
• Relational tables can be expressed concisely showing just the
table name and the column names. For example,
• AUTHOR (au_id, au_lname, au_fname, address, city, state, zip)
• TITLE (title_id, title, type, price, pub_id)
• PUBLISHER (pub_id, pub_name, city)
• AUTHOR_TITLE (au_id, pub_id)
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Properties of Relational Tables
• Each row-column entry in the table must have a single
atomic value.
• Data values in columns are of the same kind. In relational
terms, this property states that all values in a given column
must come from the same domain, a set of values that the
column can have.
• Each row is unique. No two rows may have identical
values.
• Each column must have an unique name.
• The sequence of columns (left to right) is insignificant.
• The sequence of rows (top
to bottom) is insignificant. 16
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Relationships and Keys
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A relationship is an association between two or more tables.
Relationships are expressed in the data values of the primary and
foreign keys.
A primary key is a column or columns in a table whose values
uniquely identify each row in a table. A foreign key is a column
• or columns whose values are the same as the primary key of
another table. You can think of a foreign key as a copy of primary
• key from another relational table.
• The relationship is made between two relational tables by matching
the values of the foreign key in one table with the values of the
primary key in another.
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Types of Keys
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Keys are Fundamental
• Keys are fundamental to the concept of relational
databases because they enable tables in the database to be
related with each other.
• Navigation around a relational database depends on the
ability of the primary key to unambiguously identify
specific rows of a table.
• Navigating between tables requires that the foreign key is
able to correctly and consistently reference the values of
the primary keys of a related table.
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Layout of set of tables
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Data Integrity
• Data integrity means that you can correctly and
consistently navigate and manipulate the tables in
the database. There are two basic rules to ensure
data integrity:
– Entity integrity and
– Referential integrity.
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Entity integrity
• States that the value of the primary key, can never
be a null value (A null value is one that has no
value. It is not the same as a blank.)
• Because a primary key is used to identify a unique
row in a relational table, its value must always be
specified and should never be unknown.
• The integrity rule requires that inset, update, and
delete operations maintain the uniqueness and
existence of all primary keys.
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Referential Integrity
• States that if a relational table has a foreign
key, then every value of the foreign key
must either be null or,
• Match the values in the relational table in
which that foreign key is a primary key.
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Data integrity
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What is a relational database table, and
what are its components?
• Relational database table is a logical
structure that houses related entities.
• Logical structure is visualized as a
matrix composed of intersecting rows,
one for each entity, and columns, one
for each attribute.
• Table stores an entity set. (entity and
entity set are often used
interchangeably in the literature)
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Relational operators
• Used to retrieve and manipulate data easily
and reliably.
• Relational operators, based on the relational
algebra functions UNION, DIFFERENCE,
INTERSECT, PRODUCT, PROJECT,
SELECT, JOIN, and DIVIDE.
• Provide effective and efficient data retrieval
and manipulation.
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Union
• The union operation of two relational tables is formed by
appending rows from one table with those of a second
table to produce a third.
• Duplicate rows are eliminated.
• The notation for the union of Tables A and B is A UNION
B.
• The relational tables used in the union operation must be
union compatible.
• Tables that are union compatible must have the same
number of columns and corresponding columns must come
from the same domain
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Union Example
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Difference
• The difference of two relational tables is a third
that contains those rows which occur in the first
table but not in the second.
• The Difference operation requires that the tables
be union compatible.
• As with arithmetic, the order of subtraction
matters. That is, A - B is not the same as B - A
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Difference Example
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Intersection
• The intersection of two relational tables is a
third table that contains common rows.
• Both tables most be union compatible.
• The notation for the intersection of A and B
is A [intersection] B = C or A INTERSECT
B
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Intersection Example
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Product
• The product of two relational tables, also called the
Cartesian Product, is the concatenation of every row
in one table with every row in the second.
• The product of table A (having m rows) and table B
(having n rows) is the table C (having m x n rows).
• The product is denoted as A X B or A TIMES B.
• The product operation is by itself, not very useful.
However, it is often used as an intermediate process in
a Join.
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Product Example
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Projection
• The project operator retrieves a subset of
columns from a table, removing duplicate
rows from the result.
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Selection
• The select operator, sometimes called
restrict to prevent confusion with the SQL
SELECT command, retrieves subsets of
rows from a relational table based on a
value(s) in a column or columns.
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Join
• A Join operation combines the product, selection, and, possibly,
projection.
• The join operator horizontally combines (concatenates) data
from one row of a table with rows from another or the same
table when certain criteria are met.
• The criteria involves a relationship among the columns in the
join relational table.
• If the join criterion is based on equality of column value, the
result is called an equijoin.
• A natural join, is an equijoin with redundant columns removed.
• Joins can also be done on criteria other than equality.
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Join Example
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Division
• The division operator results in columns
values in one table for which there are other
matching column values corresponding to
every row in another table.
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Division Example
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Domains
• A domain is a set of acceptable values for a
variable.
– Example : State Codes, Salaries of Employees
• Domain compatibility
– Binary operations (e.g., comparison to one
another, addition, etc) can be performed on them.
• Full support for domains is not provided in
many current relational DBMSs
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Relation Schemes
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Example Relation Instances
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Relational Properties
• Based on the set theory
– no ordering among attributes and rows (tuples)
– no duplicate rows (tuples) allowed
– value-oriented: rows (tuples) are identified by the
attributes values
• All attribute values are atomic
– no repeating groups
• Cardinality
– number of tuples
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Homonyms
• Similar-sounding words with different meanings
– boar and bore
• Identically spelled words with different meanings,
– fair (meaning “just”) and fair (meaning “festival”).
• Indicates the use of the same attribute name to
label different attributes.
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Synonym
• Opposite of a homonym
• Indicates the use of different names to describe the
same attribute
– car and auto refer to the same object.
• If the same attribute occurs in different tables,
should carry the same name in each table.
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Data Dictionary
• Create and update a simple data
dictionary to keep track of the entities
and attributes as the design begins to
take shape.
• Lack of a data dictionary makes it
difficult to keep track of attributes and
virtually guarantees the insertion of
homonyms and synonyms.
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Relational Database and Physical
Storage
• Logical (matrix) view of a table is not
physically stored on disk this way.
• RDBMS takes care of the physical
storage details to let us concentrate on
the logical structure
• So easier to visualize what's happening
in the database.
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Entity-Relationship (ER) model
• The was originally proposed by Peter Chen
[Chen76], as way to unify the network and
relational database views. Simply stated the
• ER model is a conceptual data model that views
the real world as entities and relationships.
• A basic component of the model is the EntityRelationship diagram which is used to visually
represents data objects.
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Uses of ER model
 Maps well to the relational model
 Constructs used in the ER model transformed
into relational tables.
 Can be used to by the database designer to
communicate the design to the end user.
 Model can be used as a design plan
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Basic Elements of E-R Modeling
• Views the real world as entities and
associations between entities.
• Entities are the principal data object about
which information is to be collected
• Relationships represents an association
between two or more entities.
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Entities
• Entities are usually recognizable concepts,
either concrete or abstract, such as person,
places, things, or events which have
relevance to the database
• Examples of entities are EMPLOYEES,
PROJECTS, INVOICES
• An entity is analogous to a table in the
relational model.
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Entity instance (occurrence)
• An instance is an individual instance of an
entity.
• An instance is analogous to a row in the
relational table
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Relationships
• Represents an association between two or more
entities.
• An example of a relationship would be:
– employees are assigned to projects
– projects have activities
– Departments manage one or more projects
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Attributes
• Attributes describe the entity of which they are
associated.
• A particular instance of an attributes is a value.
– For example, ”Peter" is one value of the attribute
First_Name.
• A domain is the collection of all possible values
an attribute can have.
• The domain of Name is a character string.
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