Transcript Semester 1 Review

Semester 1 Review
Body Planes
• Extends parallel to the long axis of the body
(along the body’s length)
• Extends in the vertical direction
• Midsagittal (median)- equal right and left sides
• Parasagittal - divided unequally
• A.K.A. coronal plane
• Extends along the body’s long axis
• Divides anterior and posterior
• A.K.A. transverse plane
• A.K.A. cross section
• Divides the body into superior and inferior
portions
Systems and Functions
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Integumentary system- outer protection
Skeletal system-support and structure
Muscular system- support and movement
Nervous system- transport signal and control
the body
• Endocrine system- produce hormones
• Cardiovascular system- transport nutrients
through the body
Systems and Functions (cont.)
• Lymphatic system- transport fluid and waste
leaked from the blood vessels, part of immune
system
• Respiratory system- gas exchange system
• Digestive system- breakdown of food and
nutrients and release solid waste
• Urinary system- filters fluids and releases
liquid waste
• Reproductive system- produce new offspring
Body Cavities
• Dorsal
– cranial cavity
– vertebral canal
Body Cavities
• Ventral cavity
– Viscera – group of internal organs within this
cavity
– thoracic cavity
• 2 pleural cavities, pericardial cavity (within
mediastinum)
– abdominopelvic cavity
Body Cavities
Other Body Cavities
• Oral and Digestive Cavities
– Mouth, digestive organs
• Nasal Cavity
– Nose, respiratory system passageways
• Orbital Cavities
– Eyes
• Middle Ear Cavities
– Temporal bone, tiny bones that transmit sound
• Synovial
– Joints
Anterior
• Abdominal
– anterior body trunk inferior
to ribs
• Acromial
– Point of shoulder
• Antebrachial
– forearm
• Antecubital
– anterior surface of the elbow
• Axillary
– armpit
Anterior (cont’d)
• Brachial
– Arm (upper)
• Buccal
– cheek area
• Carpal
– wrist
• Cervical
– neck region
• Coxal
– hip
Anterior (cont’d)
• Crural
– leg
• Digital
– fingers, toes
• Femoral
• thigh
• Inguinal
– thigh meets body trunk;
groin
Anterior (cont’d)
• Nasal
– nose
• Oral
– mouth
• Orbital
– eye
• Patellar
– anterior knee
• Peroneal (fibular)
– lateral part of leg
Anterior (cont’d)
• Pubic
– genital region
• Sternal
– breastbone area
• Tarsal
– ankle region
• Thoracic
– chest
• Umbilical
– naval
Posterior
• Cephalic
– Head (whole)
• Deltoid
– curve of shoulder
• Gluteal
– buttock
• Lumbar
– back between ribs and hips
Posterior (cont’d)
• Occipital
– posterior surface of head;
base of skull
• Olecranal
– Posterior elbow
• Popliteal
– posterior knee area
• Sacral
– Area between hips
Posterior (cont’d)
• Scapular
– shoulder blade region
• Sural
– the calf
• Vertebral
– area of the spine
Superior
Inferior
• Superior (Cranial)
• Toward the head or upper
part of body
• Above
• The head is superior to
the neck.
• Inferior (Caudal)
• Away from the head or
toward the lower part of the
body
• Below
• The neck is inferior to the
head.
Anterior
• Anterior (Ventral)
• Toward the front or
belly side
• The eyes are on the
anterior side of the
head.
Posterior
• Posterior ( Dorsal)
• Toward the back
• The vertebral column
extends down the
posterior side of the
body.
Medial
Lateral
• Medial
• Toward the midline
• The nose is medial to the
ears
• Lateral
• Away from the midline
• The ears are lateral to the
nose
Deep
Superficial
• Superficial (external)
• Toward or at the
surface of the body
• The location of the
skin is superficial to
the muscles.
Deep
• Deep (Internal)
• Inward from the
surface of the body
• The heart lies deep to
the rib cage.
Proximal
Distal
• Proximal
• Toward a structure’s
origin or point of
attachment to the trunk
• The upper arm is
proximal to the wrist.
• Distal
• Away from a structure’s
origin or point of
attachment to the trunk
• The knee is distal to the
thigh.
Macromolecules
Macromolecule
Monomers
Function
Carbohydrate
Monosaccharide
Energy
Lipid
Fatty Acid
Protection, Energy Storage,
and Hormones
Proteins
Amino Acid
Structure and Protection
Nucleic Acids
Nucleotide
Heredity Info. (DNA/RNA)
Atomic Structure
• Nucleus
– Protons (+)
– Neutrons (0)
• Electron Shell
– electrons (-)
Structure of the Atom
Oxidation-Reduction
• Decomposition, plus exchange of electrons.
• Reactant losing electrons or H atom – oxidized
• Reactant gaining electrons or H atom– reduced
– “OIL RIG”
• Not always a complete transfer of electrons
• Ex. Cellular respiration
Ionic Bonds
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Positive ions and negative ions held together
Electrostatic - forces of attraction
A gain or loss of electrons
Cations - positively charged ions
Anions - negatively charged ions
Unstable in water
Ex. NaCl
Ionic Bond
Covalent Bond
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Sharing electrons with other atom
Most bonds in body
Strong bonds – not easily broken
Stable in water
H-H
O=O
Single Covalent Bond
Covalent Bonds
Hydrogen Bonds
• Weak bonds between hydrogen and a weak
negative charge
• In large numbers they provide strength
within molecules
• Important in DNA
• Common in water
Hydrogen Bonding in Water
Hydrogen Bonds in DNA
Nucleic Acids
– DNA
• Contain nucleotides:
deoxyribose sugar,
nitrogen bases (T, A, C, G),
phosphate group
• Double helix
• Directs protein synthesis
Organic Molecules (cont’d)
• Nucleic Acids (cont’d)
– RNA
• Nucleotides: Ribose sugar, nitrogen bases
(U, A, C, G), phosphate group
• Carries out protein synthesis
Water
– Makes up about 6070% of total body
mass
– The universal solvent
(a medium that
dissolves a solute)
– Important transport
medium
– Has a high heat
capacity - absorbs and
releases heat slowly
– High heat of
vaporization – helps
to cool body
– Important reactant
– Effective lubricant
– Cushions organs
Plasma Membrane
• Phospholipids: Hydrophobic “tails” and
hydrophilic “heads”
• Cholesterol: act like glue for membrane
• Protein: Transport, Enzymatic activity,
Receptors, Intercellular joining, Cell to cell
recognition, Help maintain cell shape
• Carbohydrates: Markers
• Mitochondria
– Cellular aerobic respiration (ATP)
– “Powerhouse of the cell”
• Ribosomes
– Site of protein synthesis
– Some float free, some attached to
ER.
• Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER)
– Pathways
– Rough ER (RER)
• Studded w/ ribosomes
• Makes all proteins secreted by cells
• Membrane factory
– Synthesize cholesterol and
phospholipids
• ER (cont’d)
– Smooth ER (SER)
• Continuation of RER, but no protein
synthesis (no ribosomes)
• Synthesis of cholesterol
• Fat metabolism & transport
• Detoxification of drugs
• Steroid synthesis
• Breakdown of glycogen
• Golgi Apparatus
– Prepares and packages cellular
products (proteins, membranes)
• Lysosomes
– Intracellular digestion
• Worn-out organelles and tissues
• Viruses, bacteria, toxins
• Breakdown bone to release Ca++ into
blood
• Peroxisomes
– Protect cells from destructive
effects of free radicals and other
toxins
• Cytoskeleton
– Rods running through cytosol
• Microtubules
– Determine overall shape of cell and
distribution of organelles
• Intermediate filaments
– Ropelike
– Resist mechanical stress
• Microfilaments
– Movement of cell parts
– Produce change in cell shape
• Centrioles
– Form mitotic spindle
• Cilia – whiplike, cellular
extensions
– Occurs in large numbers in some
cells
– Moves substances along cell
surface
• Flagella – longer extension of
cell surface
– Used to propel cell
• Nucleus
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Control center of cell
Transmit genetic information
Instructions for protein synthesis
Nuclear membrane (envelope)
• Large pores
• Regulate the passageway into and out of
nucleus
– Nucleoli
• Site of ribosome synthesis
– Chromatin
• Proteins and DNA
• Threadlike
• Become coiled chromosomes during cell
division
Cell Transport
• Active Transport: Uses energy
– Endocytosis
• Pinocytosis
• Phagocytosis
– Exocytosis
– Na-K Pump
• Passive Transport: Does not use Energy
– Simple Diffusion
– Facilitated Diffusion
– Osmosis
Cell Division
• Mitosis
– Phases
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Interphase
Prophase
Metaphase
Anaphase
Telophase
Cytokinesis
Interphase
– Body Cells
– Dipliods
– 2 cells w/ 46
Chromosomes
• Meiosis
– Phases
• Same as Mitosis but goes
through twice without
going through Interphase
in between.
– Sex Cells
– Haploids
– 4 cells w/ 23
Chromosomes
Tissues
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Squamous - flat
Columnar - cylinder
Cuboidal - cube-shaped
Simple - single layered
Stratified - multiple layers
Epithelial Membranes: Mucous
Membranes (Mucosae)
• Lines body
cavities that open
to the exterior
– Hollow organs of
digestive,
respiratory,
urinary, and
reproductive tracts
Epithelial Membranes: Mucous
Membranes (Mucosae) (cont’d)
• Moist membranes bathed by
secretions
• Usually stratified squamous or
simple columnar, directly
underlain by lamina propria
• Some cover their outer surface
with mucus that traps and
removes foreign particles
Epithelial Membranes: Serous
Membrane (Serosae)
• Line the body cavities not open to
exterior
– Internal surface of the thoracic and
abdominopelvic cavities
• Cover organs in this area & helps
bind some to each other
• Secretes fluid for lubrication
• Very thin (1-2 cells thick)
• Simple squamous ET resting on thin
layer of areolar CT
Epithelial Membranes:
Cutaneous Membrane
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Skin
Protects
Dry membrane
Exposed to air
Keratinized stratified
squamous epith. attached to
thick dense irregular CT
(dermis)
CT Membrane: Synovial
Membranes
• Line the inside walls of cavity
that surround joints
– Knee, elbow, shoulder
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CT Membrane: Synovial
Membranes (cont’d)
Do not contain ET
Composed of loose CT and a
small amount of fat
Secrete synovial fluid lubricates opposing bones
Nourishes cartilage w/ oxygen
and nutrients
Structural Elements of CT
• Living cells surrounded by
matrix
– Each CT type – primary cells
exist as:
• Cytes - mature cells
• Blasts – immature, young
mitotic, matrix-secreting
Structural Elements of CT
(cont’d)
• Extracellular matrix
– Ground substance – unstructured
substances fill space btwn cells
– May be fluid, semi-fluid, gel-like,
fibrous, solid
– Able to bear wt., w/stand great
tension, endure abuses
Structural Elements of CT
(cont’d)
• Fiber – part of matrix
– Imbedded in ground substance
– 3 types
Types of Fiber
• Collagenous Fiber
– Most abundant
– Thick, wavelike strands
– Made up of collagen (strong, flexible
protein)
• Used for tissue repair
• Elastic Fibers
– Not as strong
– Forms thinner fibers
– Allows to stretch and return to shape
Types of Fiber(cont’d)
• Reticular
– Common to CT
– Composed of reticulin which resists
physical stress
– Presence of blood vessels
(vascular)
• Allows growth and repair
CT Proper
• Primary cells - fibroblasts
• Two subclasses:
– Loose CT
– Dense CT
Loose CT
• Fibers are not abundant
• All three types of fibers are present
• Contains macrophages (fight
infection)
• Provides structural anchor to body
parts
• Between the skin and muscle
layers; on the surfaces of most
organs; fills in spaces btwn organs
and other body parts
• 3 types
Loose CT: Areolar CT
• Forms soft packing around body
organs
• Helps hold organs together and
in place
• Lamina propria – underlies all
mucous membranes
Areolar CT (Mesentery)
Loose CT: Adipose Tissue
• Composed of adipocytes
– Large, spherical cells containing a
deposit of fat
• Stores energy as fat
• Forms an insulating padding
between organs
• Acts as a shock-absorbing
cushion
Adipose Tissue (subcutaneous
layer of skin)
Loose CT: Reticular CT
• Only fibers are reticular
• Forms framework for soft organs
– Lymph nodes
– Thymus
– Spleen
– Red bone marrow
Reticular CT (lymph nodes)
Dense CT
• Packed tightly together
• Contains less ground
substance, but more protein
fibers than loose
• 3 types
Dense CT: Dense Regular CT
• Parallel bundles of collagen
• Primary component of
ligaments and tendons
Dense Regular CT (ligament)
Dense CT: Elastic CT
• Dense regular with very high
elastic content
Dense CT: Dense Irregular CT
• Form dense matting of protein
• Form dermis & external
wrapping around bones and
cartilage
Dense Irregular CT (dermis)
Cartilage
• Harder and more solid than
connective tissue proper
• Matrix produced by
chondroblasts
• Mature chondrocytes lie in
chambers called lacunae
• Avascular
• Lack nerve fibers
Types of Cartilage
• Hyaline
– Glassy blue-white
– Most abundant
• Elastic Cartilage
– Yellowish
– Many more elastin fibers
– Firm, but flexible
• Fibrocartilage
Hyaline Cartilage (trachea)
Elastic Cartilage (rabbit ear)
Fibrocartilage
(intervetebral disc)
Bone (Osseous Tissue)
• Osteocyte cell maintains a hard
matrix
• Lie in lacunae
• Composed of mineral salts and
collagenous fibers
• Provides structural framework
• Supports body
• Spongy or compact bone
Types of Bone
• Compact Bone
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Matrix is deposited in layers (lamellae)
Encircle a central canal
Composed of osteocytes
All above - haversian system
Forms the dense part of bone & provides
structural integrity
• Spongy Bone
– Matrix is deposited within spicule
– Filled with red bone marrow
– Forms internal framework & houses
marrow
Bone (Osseous Tissue)
Types of Blood Forming Tissues
• Red marrow
– A.K.A. hematopoietic tissue
– Found inside cavities w/in spongy bone
– Initiates all cell production (RBCs,
WBCs, platelets)
• Yellow marrow
– A.K.A. lymphoid tissue
– Found throughout the body in bone,
lymph nodes, tonsils, spleen & in
thymus of children
– Maturation site for lymphocytes &
monocytes
Blood
• Composed of:
– Formed elements
• RBC, WBC, & Platelets
– Plasma
• Surrounds formed elements
• Transports for cardiovascular
system
– Respiratory gases
– Nutrients
– Waste
Blood
Types of Muscular Tissue
• Skeletal
– Attached to bones
– Deep under skin layer
– Voluntary control
– Body movement
– Cells
• Multinucleated
• Heavy striations
• Long, cylindrical cells
Skeletal Tissue
Types of Muscular Tissue (cont’d)
• Cardiac
– Found in walls of heart
(myocardium)
– Pushes blood out of heart
– Involuntary control
– Cells
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Weak striations
Rectangular
Uninucleated
Intercalated discs joins ends of cells
Cardiac Tissue
Types of Muscular Tissue (cont’d)
• Smooth Muscle
– Forms walls of blood vessels & visceral
organs
– Involuntary control
– Stomach, intestines, urinary bladder,
uterus
– Cells
• Spindle shaped
• Not striated
• Uninucleated
Smooth Muscle Tissue
Nerve Tissue
• Nerve Tissue
– Properties of
conductivity and
excitability
– Two types of cells
• Neurons
– conduct
electrochemical
signals rapidly
• Neuroglia
– Maintain and
support
neurons
– Nonconducting
Layers of Epidermis (cont’d)
Stratum basale
(stratum
germinativum)
 Lowest layer
 Lies next to dermis
 Good nutrient supply
 Cells constantly
undergoing mitosis
 Cuboidal, columnar
in shape
 Moves to upper
epidermis in 27 days
Layers of Epidermis (cont’d)
• Stratum Spinosum
(Prickly Layer)
 Living cells
 Dividing
 8-10 cells thick
 Polygonal in
appearance
Layers of Epidermis (cont’d)
• Stratum granulosum
(Granular Layer)
– Poor nutrient
supply
– Flattened layer of
cells
– 3-5 cells thick
– No cell division
– Keratin
accumulates
Layers of Epidermis (cont’d)
Stratum lucidum
(Clear Layer)
 Transparent or
lucid layer
 Occurs only in
thick skin
 Highly keratinized
 Dead cells
Layers of Epidermis (cont’d)
Stratum corneum
(Horny Layer)
 Shingle-like dead
cells
 25-30 cells thick
 Cells filled with
keratin and
hardened
 Sloughed off
 Outermost layer
 Keratinocytes
Dermis (cont’d)

Papillary layer
 Upper region
 Projections called
dermal papillae
 Fingerprints
Dermis (cont’d)

Papillary layer (cont’d)
 Nerve receptors
 Pain – free nerve endings
 Touch - Meissner’s corpuscles
 Heat – Ruffini’s corpuscles
 Cold – Krauses’s end bulbs
 Capillary loops
 Furnish nutrients to epidermis
Dermis (cont’d)

Reticular layer
 Deepest skin
layer
 Blood vessels
 Sweat and oil
glands
 Nerve receptors
 Pacinian
corpuscles –
deep pressure
Cutaneous Glands (cont’d)
• Sebaceous glands
– Oil glands
– Found all over skin
(except on palms of
hands and soles of
feet)
– Most ducts empty
into hair follicles
Cutaneous Glands (cont’d)
• Sebaceous glands(cont’d)
– Produces sebum
• Mixture of oily substances and
fragmented cells
• Moistens and softens skin
• Prevents hair from being brittle
• Contains chemicals that kill bacteria
• Become very active at puberty
Cutaneous Glands (cont’d)
• Sweat glands
– AKA Sudoriferous glands
– Widely distributed in skin
– Two types
• Eccrine glands
• Apocrine glands
Cutaneous Glands (cont’d)
• Sweat Glands (cont’d)
– Eccrine glands
• AKA merocine sweat glands
• Far more numerous
• Found all over body
–Abundant on palms, soles of feet, and
forehead
Cutaneous Glands (cont’d)
• Sweat Glands (cont’d)
– Eccrine glands (cont’d)
• Produce sweat
–Mostly water, plus salts, vitamin C, traces
of metabolic waste (urea, uric acid,
ammonia) and lactic acid
• Ducts open externally to pore at skin
surface
• Thermoregulation
Cutaneous Glands (cont’d)
• Sweat Glands (cont’d)
– Apocrine glands
• Axillary and anogenital regions
• Ducts release into hair follicles
• Larger than eccrine
• Activated at puberty
Cutaneous Glands (cont’d)
• Sweat Glands (cont’d)
– Apocrine glands (cont’d)
• Sweat similar to eccrine
–Also contains proteins and fatty
substances
–Odorless, unless bacteria thrive on
proteins and fat
»Basis of body odor
Cutaneous Glands (cont’d)
• Sweat Glands (cont’d)
– Apocrine glands (cont’d)
• Precise function not known
–May function as scent gland
–Activated by nerve fibers during pain
and stress and during sexual foreplay
–Minimal role in thermoregulation
Cutaneous Glands (cont’d)
• Sweat Glands (cont’d)
– Specialized sweat glands
• Ceruminous glands
–Modified apocrine glands
–Lining of external ear canal
–Secrete cerumen
»Earwax
»Deters insects and block entry of
foreign material
Cutaneous Glands (cont’d)
• Sweat Glands (cont’d)
– Specialized sweat glands (cont’d)
• Mammary glands
–Secrete milk
Hair and Hair Follicles
• Hair
– Distributed over entire skin surface except
• Palms, soles, and lips
• Nipples and portions of external genitalia
Hair and Hair Follicles (cont’d)
• Structure of hair
– Medulla
• Central core
– Cortex
• Several layers of
flattened cells
Hair and Hair Follicles (cont’d)
• Hair follicle
– Compound structure
• Inner epidermal sheath
– Made of ET and
forms hair
• Outer dermal sheath
– Dermal CT
– Supplies blood
vessels to epidermal
portion and
reinforces it
Hair and Hair Follicles (cont’d)
• Hair follicle (cont’d)
– Arrector pili
• Smooth muscle
• Connect hair
follicle to
dermal tissue
• Goose bumps
Nails
• Nails
– Scale-like modifications of the
epidermis
• Heavily keratinized
Nails
• Structure of a nail
– Free edge
– Body
• Visible attached portion
– Root
• Embedded in skin
Nails
• Structure of a nail (cont’d)
– Borders of nail
• Overlapped by nail folds (skin folds)
• Thick proximal fold - Eponychium (cuticle)
Nails
• Structure of a nail (cont’d)
– Stratum basale extends beneath nail bed as
the nail bed
• Nail matrix - responsible for growth
• As nail cells produced, become heavily
keratinized
• Nails are mostly nonliving material
Burns (cont’d)
• Rule of nines
– Way to determine the extent of burns
– Body is divided into 11 areas for quick
estimation
• Each area represents about 9%
Burns (cont’d)
• Severity of burns
– First degree
 Only epidermis is damaged
 Skin is red and swollen
Burns (cont’d)
• Severity of burns (cont’d)
– Second degree burns
 Epidermis and upper dermis are
damaged
 Skin is red with blisters
Burns (cont’d)
• Severity of burns
(cont’d)
– Third degree
burns
• Destroys entire
skin layer
• Burn is graywhite or black
Burns (cont’d)
• Burns are considered critical if:
 Over 25% of body has second degree
burns
 Over 10% of the body has third degree
burns
 There are third degree burns of the face,
hands, or feet
Skin Cancer
• Basal Cell Carcinoma
– Least malignant
– Most common skin cancer
– Arise from stratum basale
– Slow growing and do not often
metastasize
– Can be cured by surgical incision in
99% of cases
Skin Cancer (cont’d)
• Squamous Cell Carcinoma
– Arise from stratum spinosum
– Most often on scalp, ears, lower lip, and
hands
– Grows rapidly and metastasizes if not
removed
– Early removal allows a good chance of
cure
Skin Cancer (cont’d)
• Malignant Melanoma
– Most deadly of skin cancers
– Cancer of melanocytes
– Most appear spontaneously, but 1/3
develop from preexisting moles
– Metastasizes rapidly to lymph and blood
vessels
Skin Cancer (cont’d)
• Malignant Melanoma (cont’d)
– Treated by wide surgical excision
accompanied by immunotherapy
– Chance of survival is poor is lesion is over
4mm thick
– Key to survival is early detection
• ABCD rules