Transcript Chapter - Faculty | Essex

15
The Special Senses
Part A
Chapter , Dr. Enriquez
1
Chemical Senses


Chemical senses – gustation (taste) and olfaction
(smell)
Their chemoreceptors respond to chemicals in
aqueous solution


Taste – to substances dissolved in saliva
Smell – to substances dissolved in fluids of the nasal
membranes
Chapter , Dr. Enriquez
2
Taste Buds




Most of the 10,000 or so taste buds are found on
the tongue
Taste buds are found in papillae of the tongue
mucosa
Papillae come in three types: filiform, fungiform,
and circumvallate
Fungiform and circumvallate papillae contain
taste buds
Chapter , Dr. Enriquez
3
Taste Buds
Chapter , Dr. Enriquez
Figure 15.14
Anatomy of a Taste Bud

Each gourd-shaped taste bud consists of three
major cell types



Supporting cells – insulate the receptor
Basal cells – dynamic stem cells
Gustatory cells – taste cells
Chapter , Dr. Enriquez
5
Taste Sensations

There are five basic taste sensations





Sweet – sugars, saccharin, alcohol, and some amino
acids
Salt – metal ions
Sour – hydrogen ions
Bitter – alkaloids such as quinine and nicotine
Umami – elicited by the amino acid glutamate
Chapter , Dr. Enriquez
6
Physiology of Taste

In order to be tasted, a chemical:



Must be dissolved in saliva
Must contact gustatory hairs
Binding of the food chemical:


Depolarizes the taste cell membrane, releasing
neurotransmitter
Initiates a generator potential that elicits an action
potential
Chapter , Dr. Enriquez
7
Taste Transduction

The stimulus energy of taste is converted into a
nerve impulse by:



Na+ influx in salty tastes
H+ in sour tastes (by directly entering the cell, by
opening cation channels, or by blockade of K+
channels)
Gustducin in sweet and bitter tastes
Chapter , Dr. Enriquez
8
Gustatory Pathway


Cranial Nerves VII and IX carry impulses from
taste buds to the solitary nucleus of the medulla
These impulses then travel to the thalamus, and
from there fibers branch to the:


Gustatory cortex (taste)
Hypothalamus and limbic system (appreciation of
taste)
Chapter , Dr. Enriquez
9
Gustatory Pathway
Chapter , Dr. Enriquez
Figure 15.2
10
Influence of Other Sensations on
Taste



Taste is 80% smell
Thermoreceptors, mechanoreceptors, nociceptors
also influence tastes
Temperature and texture enhance or detract from
taste
Chapter , Dr. Enriquez
11
Sense of Smell




The organ of smell is the olfactory epithelium,
which covers the superior nasal concha
Olfactory receptor cells are bipolar neurons with
radiating olfactory cilia
Olfactory receptors are surrounded and cushioned
by supporting cells
Basal cells lie at the base of the epithelium
Chapter , Dr. Enriquez
12
Sense of Smell
Chapter , Dr. Enriquez
13
Figure 15.3
Physiology of Smell



Olfactory receptors respond to several different
odor-causing chemicals
When bound to ligand these proteins initiate a
G protein mechanism, which uses cAMP as a
second messenger
cAMP opens Na+ and Ca2+ channels, causing
depolarization of the receptor membrane that then
triggers an action potential
Chapter , Dr. Enriquez
14
Olfactory Pathway



Olfactory receptor cells synapse with mitral cells
Glomerular mitral cells process odor signals
Mitral cells send impulses to:


The olfactory cortex
The hypothalamus, amygdala, and limbic system
Chapter , Dr. Enriquez
15
Olfactory Transduction Process
Odorant
binding
protein
Inactive
Odorant
chemical
Na+
Active
Na+ influx
causes
depolarization
ATP
Adenylate
cyclase
cAMP
Cytoplasm
Chapter , Dr. Enriquez
Depolarization of
olfactory receptor
cell membrane
triggers action
potentials in axon
of receptor
Figure 15.4
16
Eye and Associated Structures



70% of all sensory receptors are in the eye
Most of the eye is protected by a cushion of fat
and the bony orbit
Accessory structures include eyebrows, eyelids,
conjunctiva, lacrimal apparatus, and extrinsic eye
muscles
Chapter , Dr. Enriquez
17
Eyebrows


Coarse hairs that overlie the supraorbital margins
Functions include:




Shading the eye
Preventing perspiration from reaching the eye
Orbicularis muscle – depresses the eyebrows
Corrugator muscles – move the eyebrows
medially
Chapter , Dr. Enriquez
18
Palpebrae (Eyelids)



Protect the eye anteriorly
Palpebral fissure – separates eyelids
Canthi – medial and lateral angles (commissures)
Chapter , Dr. Enriquez
19
Palpebrae (Eyelids)



Lacrimal caruncle – contains glands that secrete a
whitish, oily secretion (Sandman’s eye sand)
Tarsal plates of connective tissue support the
eyelids internally
Levator palpebrae superioris – gives the upper
eyelid mobility
Chapter , Dr. Enriquez
20
Palpebrae (Eyelids)

Eyelashes



Project from the free margin of each eyelid
Initiate reflex blinking
Lubricating glands associated with the eyelids


Meibomian glands and sebaceous glands
Ciliary glands lie between the hair follicles
Chapter , Dr. Enriquez
21
Palpebrae (Eyelids)
Chapter , Dr. Enriquez
Figure 15.5b
22
Conjunctiva

Transparent membrane that:



Lines the eyelids as the palpebral conjunctiva
Covers the whites of the eyes as the ocular
conjunctiva
Lubricates and protects the eye
Chapter , Dr. Enriquez
23
Lacrimal Apparatus



Consists of the lacrimal gland and associated
ducts
Lacrimal glands secrete tears
Tears




Contain mucus, antibodies, and lysozyme
Enter the eye via superolateral excretory ducts
Exit the eye medially via the lacrimal punctum
Drain into the nasolacrimal duct
Chapter , Dr. Enriquez
24
Lacrimal Apparatus
Chapter , Dr. Enriquez
Figure 15.6
25
Extrinsic Eye Muscles

Six straplike extrinsic eye muscles




Enable the eye to follow moving objects
Maintain the shape of the eyeball
Four rectus muscles originate from the annular
ring
Two oblique muscles move the eye in the vertical
plane
Chapter , Dr. Enriquez
26
Extrinsic Eye Muscles
Chapter , Dr. Enriquez
Figure 15.7a, b
27
Summary of Cranial Nerves and
Muscle Actions

Names, actions, and cranial nerve innervation of
the extrinsic eye muscles
Chapter , Dr. Enriquez
Figure 15.7c
28
Structure of the Eyeball




A slightly irregular hollow sphere with anterior
and posterior poles
The wall is composed of three tunics – fibrous,
vascular, and sensory
The internal cavity is filled with fluids called
humors
The lens separates the internal cavity into anterior
and posterior segments
Chapter , Dr. Enriquez
29
Structure of the Eyeball
Chapter , Dr. Enriquez
Figure 15.8a
30
Fibrous Tunic

Forms the outermost coat of the eye and is
composed of:




Opaque sclera (posteriorly)
Clear cornea (anteriorly)
The sclera protects the eye and anchors extrinsic
muscles
The cornea lets light enter the eye
Chapter , Dr. Enriquez
31
Vascular Tunic (Uvea): Choroid
Region


Has three regions: choroid, ciliary body, and iris
Choroid region


A dark brown membrane that forms the posterior
portion of the uvea
Supplies blood to all eye tunics
Chapter , Dr. Enriquez
32
Vascular Tunic: Ciliary Body



A thickened ring of tissue surrounding the lens
Composed of smooth muscle bundles (ciliary
muscles)
Anchors the suspensory ligament that holds the
lens in place
Chapter , Dr. Enriquez
33
Vascular Tunic: Iris


The colored part of the eye
Pupil – central opening of the iris

Regulates the amount of light entering the eye during:



Chapter , Dr. Enriquez
Close vision and bright light – pupils constrict
Distant vision and dim light – pupils dilate
Changes in emotional state – pupils dilate when the subject
matter is appealing or requires problem-solving skills
34
Pupil Dilation and Constriction
Chapter , Dr. Enriquez
Figure 15.9
35
Sensory Tunic: Retina



A delicate two-layered membrane
Pigmented layer – the outer layer that absorbs
light and prevents its scattering
Neural layer, which contains:



Photoreceptors that transduce light energy
Bipolar cells and ganglion cells
Amacrine and horizontal cells
Chapter , Dr. Enriquez
36
Sensory Tunic: Retina
Chapter , Dr. Enriquez
Figure 15.10a
37
The Retina: Ganglion Cells and
the Optic Disc

Ganglion cell axons:



Run along the inner surface of the retina
Leave the eye as the optic nerve
The optic disc:


Is the site where the optic nerve leaves the eye
Lacks photoreceptors (the blind spot)
Chapter , Dr. Enriquez
38
The Retina: Ganglion Cells and
the Optic Disc
Chapter , Dr. Enriquez
Figure 15.10b
39
The Retina: Photoreceptors

Rods:



Respond to dim light
Are used for peripheral vision
Cones:




Respond to bright light
Have high-acuity color vision
Are found in the macula lutea
Are concentrated in the fovea centralis
Chapter , Dr. Enriquez
40
Blood Supply to the Retina

The neural retina receives its blood supply from
two sources



The outer third receives its blood from the choroid
The inner two-thirds is served by the central artery
and vein
Small vessels radiate out from the optic disc and
can be seen with an ophthalmoscope
Chapter , Dr. Enriquez
41
15
The Special Senses
Part B
Chapter , Dr. Enriquez
42
Inner Chambers and Fluids


The lens separates the internal eye into anterior
and posterior segments
The posterior segment is filled with a clear gel
called vitreous humor that:




Transmits light
Supports the posterior surface of the lens
Holds the neural retina firmly against the pigmented
layer
Contributes to intraocular pressure
Chapter , Dr. Enriquez
43
Anterior Segment

Composed of two chambers



Aqueous humor



Anterior – between the cornea and the iris
Posterior – between the iris and the lens
A plasmalike fluid that fills the anterior segment
Drains via the canal of Schlemm
Supports, nourishes, and removes wastes
Chapter , Dr. Enriquez
44
Anterior Segment
Chapter , Dr. Enriquez
45
Figure 15.12
Lens

A biconvex, transparent, flexible, avascular
structure that:





Allows precise focusing of light onto the retina
Is composed of epithelium and lens fibers
Lens epithelium – anterior cells that differentiate
into lens fibers
Lens fibers – cells filled with the transparent
protein crystallin
With age, the lens becomes more compact and
dense and loses its elasticity
Chapter , Dr. Enriquez
46
Light



Electromagnetic radiation – all energy waves
from short gamma rays to long radio waves
Our eyes respond to a small portion of this
spectrum called the visible spectrum
Different cones in the retina respond to different
wavelengths of the visible spectrum
Chapter , Dr. Enriquez
47
Light
Chapter , Dr. Enriquez
Figure 15.14
48
Refraction and Lenses



When light passes from one transparent medium
to another its speed changes and it refracts
(bends)
Light passing through a convex lens (as in the
eye) is bent so that the rays converge to a focal
point
When a convex lens forms an image, the image is
upside down and reversed right to left
Chapter , Dr. Enriquez
49
Refraction and Lenses
Chapter , Dr. Enriquez
Figure 15.16
50
Focusing Light on the Retina


Pathway of light entering the eye: cornea,
aqueous humor, lens, vitreous humor, and the
neural layer of the retina to the photoreceptors
Light is refracted:




At the cornea
Entering the lens
Leaving the lens
The lens curvature and shape allow for fine
focusing of an image
Chapter , Dr. Enriquez
51
Focusing for Distant Vision


Light from a
distance needs
little
adjustment for
proper focusing
Far point of
vision – the
distance
beyond which
the lens does
not need to
change shape to
focus (20 ft.)
Chapter , Dr. Enriquez
Figure 15.17a
52
Focusing for Close Vision

Close vision requires:



Accommodation – changing the lens shape by ciliary
muscles to increase refractory power
Constriction – the pupillary reflex constricts the
pupils to prevent divergent light rays from entering
the eye
Convergence – medial rotation of the eyeballs toward
the object being viewed
Chapter , Dr. Enriquez
53
Focusing for Close Vision
Chapter , Dr. Enriquez
Figure 15.7b
54
Problems of Refraction


Emmetropic eye – normal eye with light focused
properly
Myopic eye (nearsighted) – the focal point is in
front of the retina


Corrected with a concave lens
Hyperopic eye (farsighted) – the focal point is
behind the retina

Corrected with a convex lens
Chapter , Dr. Enriquez
55
Problems of Refraction
Chapter , Dr. Enriquez
56
Figure 15.18
Photoreception:
Functional Anatomy of
Photoreceptors
 Photoreception – process by which the eye

detects light energy
Rods and cones contain visual pigments
(photopigments)

Arranged in a stack of disklike infoldings of the
plasma membrane that change shape as they absorb
light
Chapter , Dr. Enriquez
57
Photoreception:
Functional Anatomy of
Photoreceptors
Chapter , Dr. Enriquez
Figure 15.19
58
Rods

Functional characteristics





Sensitive to dim light and best suited for night vision
Absorb all wavelengths of visible light
Perceived input is in gray tones only
Sum of visual input from many rods feeds into a
single ganglion cell
Results in fuzzy and indistinct images
Chapter , Dr. Enriquez
59
Cones

Functional characteristics




Need bright light for activation (have low sensitivity)
Have pigments that furnish a vividly colored view
Each cone synapses with a single ganglion cell
Vision is detailed and has high resolution
Chapter , Dr. Enriquez
60
Cones and Rods
Chapter , Dr. Enriquez
Figure 15.10a
61
Chemistry of Visual Pigments

Retinal is a light-absorbing molecule




Combines with opsins to form visual pigments
Similar to and is synthesized from vitamin A
Two isomers: 11-cis and all-trans
Isomerization of retinal initiates electrical
impulses in the optic nerve
Chapter , Dr. Enriquez
62
Chemistry of Visual Pigments
Chapter , Dr. Enriquez
Figure 15.20
63
Excitation of Rods


The visual pigment of rods is rhodopsin
(opsin + 11-cis retinal)
Light phase


Rhodopsin breaks down into all-trans retinal + opsin
(bleaching of the pigment)
Dark phase



All-trans retinal converts to 11-cis form
11-cis retinal is also formed from vitamin A
11-cis retinal + opsin regenerate rhodopsin
Chapter , Dr. Enriquez
64
Excitation of Rods
Chapter , Dr. Enriquez
Figure 15.21
65
Excitation of Cones




Visual pigments in cones are similar to rods
(retinal + opsins)
There are three types of cones: blue, green, and
red
Intermediate colors are perceived by activation of
more than one type of cone
Method of excitation is similar to rods
Chapter , Dr. Enriquez
66
Phototransduction





Light energy splits rhodopsin into all-trans
retinal, releasing activated opsin
The freed opsin activates the G protein transducin
Transducin catalyzes activation of
phosphodiesterase (PDE)
PDE hydrolyzes cGMP to GMP and releases it
from sodium channels
Without bound cGMP, sodium channels close, the
membrane hyperpolarizes, and neurotransmitter
cannot be released
Chapter , Dr. Enriquez
67
Phototransduction
Chapter , Dr. Enriquez
68
Figure 15.22
Adaptation

Adaptation to bright light (going from dark to
light) involves:



Dramatic decreases in retinal sensitivity – rod
function is lost
Switching from the rod to the cone system – visual
acuity is gained
Adaptation to dark is the reverse


Cones stop functioning in low light
Rhodopsin accumulates in the dark and retinal
sensitivity is restored
Chapter , Dr. Enriquez
69
Visual Pathways





Axons of retinal ganglion cells form the optic
nerve
Medial fibers of the optic nerve decussate at the
optic chiasm
Most fibers of the optic tracts continue to the
lateral geniculate body of the thalamus
Other optic tract fibers end in superior colliculi
(initiating visual reflexes) and pretectal nuclei
(involved with pupillary reflexes)
Optic radiations travel from the thalamus to the
visual cortex
Chapter , Dr. Enriquez
70
Visual Pathways
Chapter , Dr. Enriquez
71
Figure 15.23
Visual Pathways


Some nerve fibers send tracts to the midbrain
ending in the superior colliculi
A small subset of visual fibers contain
melanopsin (circadian pigment) which:


Mediates papillary light reflexes
Sets daily biorhythms
Chapter , Dr. Enriquez
72
Depth Perception



Achieved by both eyes viewing the same image
from slightly different angles
Three-dimensional vision results from cortical
fusion of the slightly different images
If only one eye is used, depth perception is lost
and the observer must rely on learned clues to
determine depth
Chapter , Dr. Enriquez
73
Retinal Processing: Receptive
Fields of Ganglion Cells

On-center fields




Stimulated by light hitting the center of the field
Inhibited by light hitting the periphery of the field
Off-center fields have the opposite effects
These responses are due to receptor types in the
“on” and “off” fields
Chapter , Dr. Enriquez
74
Retinal Processing: Receptive
Fields of Ganglion Cells
Chapter , Dr. Enriquez
Figure 15.24
75
Thalamic Processing

The lateral geniculate nuclei of the thalamus:




Relay information on movement
Segregate the retinal axons in preparation for depth
perception
Emphasize visual inputs from regions of high cone
density
Sharpen the contrast information received by the
retina
Chapter , Dr. Enriquez
76
Cortical Processing

Striate cortex processes


Prestriate cortices (association areas) processes


Basic dark/bright and contrast information
Form, color, and movement
Visual information then proceeds anteriorly to
the:


Temporal lobe – processes identification of objects
Parietal cortex and postcentral gyrus – processes
spatial location
Chapter , Dr. Enriquez
77
The Ear: Hearing and Balance




The three parts of the ear are the inner, outer, and
middle ear
The outer and middle ear are involved with
hearing
The inner ear functions in both hearing and
equilibrium
Receptors for hearing and balance:


Respond to separate stimuli
Are activated independently
Chapter , Dr. Enriquez
78
The Ear: Hearing and Balance
Chapter , Dr. Enriquez
Figure 15.25a
79
Outer Ear

The auricle (pinna) is composed of:



The helix (rim)
The lobule (earlobe)
External auditory canal

Short, curved tube filled with ceruminous glands
Chapter , Dr. Enriquez
80
Outer Ear

Tympanic membrane (eardrum)



Thin connective tissue membrane that vibrates in
response to sound
Transfers sound energy to the middle ear ossicles
Boundary between outer and middle ears
Chapter , Dr. Enriquez
81
Middle Ear (Tympanic Cavity)

A small, air-filled, mucosa-lined cavity




Flanked laterally by the eardrum
Flanked medially by the oval and round windows
Epitympanic recess – superior portion of the
middle ear
Pharyngotympanic tube – connects the middle ear
to the nasopharynx

Equalizes pressure in the middle ear cavity with the
external air pressure
Chapter , Dr. Enriquez
82
Middle Ear (Tympanic Cavity)
Chapter , Dr. Enriquez
Figure 15.25b
83
15
The Special Senses
Part C
Chapter , Dr. Enriquez
84
Ear Ossicles

The tympanic cavity contains three small bones:
the malleus, incus, and stapes


Transmit vibratory motion of the eardrum to the oval
window
Dampened by the tensor tympani and stapedius
muscles
Chapter , Dr. Enriquez
85
Ear Ossicles
Chapter , Dr. Enriquez
Figure 15.26
86
Inner Ear

Bony labyrinth




Tortuous channels worming their way through the temporal
bone
Contains the vestibule, the cochlea, and the semicircular canals
Filled with perilymph
Membranous labyrinth


Series of membranous sacs within the bony labyrinth
Filled with a potassium-rich fluid
Chapter , Dr. Enriquez
87
Inner Ear
Chapter , Dr. Enriquez
Figure 15.27
88
The Vestibule





The central egg-shaped cavity of the bony
labyrinth
Suspended in its perilymph are two sacs: the
saccule and utricle
The saccule extends into the cochlea
The utricle extends into the semicircular canals
These sacs:


House equilibrium receptors called maculae
Respond to gravity and changes in the position of the
head
Chapter , Dr. Enriquez
89
The Vestibule
Chapter , Dr. Enriquez
Figure 15.27
90
The Semicircular Canals




Three canals that each define two-thirds of a
circle and lie in the three planes of space
Membranous semicircular ducts line each canal
and communicate with the utricle
The ampulla is the swollen end of each canal and
it houses equilibrium receptors in a region called
the crista ampullaris
These receptors respond to angular movements of
the head
Chapter , Dr. Enriquez
91
The Semicircular Canals
Chapter , Dr. Enriquez
Figure 15.27
92
The Cochlea

A spiral, conical, bony chamber that:




Extends from the anterior vestibule
Coils around a bony pillar called the modiolus
Contains the cochlear duct, which ends at the
cochlear apex
Contains the organ of Corti (hearing receptor)
Chapter , Dr. Enriquez
93
The Cochlea

The cochlea is divided into three chambers:



Scala vestibuli
Scala media
Scala tympani
Chapter , Dr. Enriquez
94
The Cochlea


The scala tympani terminates at the round
window
The scalas tympani and vestibuli:



Are filled with perilymph
Are continuous with each other via the helicotrema
The scala media is filled with endolymph
Chapter , Dr. Enriquez
95
The Cochlea

The “floor” of the cochlear duct is composed of:



The bony spiral lamina
The basilar membrane, which supports the organ of
Corti
The cochlear branch of nerve VIII runs from the
organ of Corti to the brain
Chapter , Dr. Enriquez
96
The Cochlea
Chapter , Dr. Enriquez
Figure 15.28
97
Sound and Mechanisms of Hearing


Sound vibrations beat against the eardrum
The eardrum pushes against the ossicles, which
presses fluid in the inner ear against the oval and
round windows


This movement sets up shearing forces that pull on
hair cells
Moving hair cells stimulates the cochlear nerve that
sends impulses to the brain
Chapter , Dr. Enriquez
98
Properties of Sound

Sound is:



A pressure disturbance (alternating areas of high and
low pressure) originating from a vibrating object
Composed of areas of rarefaction and compression
Represented by a sine wave in wavelength,
frequency, and amplitude
Chapter , Dr. Enriquez
99
Properties of Sound


Frequency – the number of waves that pass a
given point in a given time
Pitch – perception of different frequencies (we
hear from 20–20,000 Hz)
Chapter , Dr. Enriquez
100
Properties of Sound


Amplitude – intensity of a sound measured in
decibels (dB)
Loudness – subjective interpretation of sound
intensity
Chapter , Dr. Enriquez
101
Figure 15.29
Transmission of Sound to the
Inner Ear

The route of sound to the inner ear follows this
pathway:



Outer ear – pinna, auditory canal, eardrum
Middle ear – malleus, incus, and stapes to the oval
window
Inner ear – scalas vestibuli and tympani to the
cochlear duct


Chapter , Dr. Enriquez
Stimulation of the organ of Corti
Generation of impulses in the cochlear nerve
102
Transmission of Sound to the
Inner Ear
Chapter , Dr. Enriquez
Figure 15.31
103
Resonance of the Basilar
Membrane

Sound waves of low frequency (inaudible):



Travel around the helicotrema
Do not excite hair cells
Audible sound waves:



Penetrate through the cochlear duct
Vibrate the basilar membrane
Excite specific hair cells according to frequency of the
sound
Chapter , Dr. Enriquez
104
Resonance of the Basilar
Membrane
Chapter , Dr. Enriquez
Figure 15.32
105
The Organ of Corti



Is composed of supporting cells and outer and
inner hair cells
Afferent fibers of the cochlear nerve attach to the
base of hair cells
The stereocilia (hairs):


Protrude into the endolymph
Touch the tectorial membrane
Chapter , Dr. Enriquez
106
Excitation of Hair Cells in the
Organ of Corti

Bending cilia:



Opens mechanically gated ion channels
Causes a graded potential and the release of a
neurotransmitter (probably glutamate)
The neurotransmitter causes cochlear fibers to
transmit impulses to the brain, where sound is
perceived
Chapter , Dr. Enriquez
107
Excitation of Hair Cells in the
Organ of Corti
Chapter , Dr. Enriquez
Figure 15.28c
108
Auditory Pathway to the Brain


Impulses from the cochlea pass via the spiral
ganglion to the cochlear nuclei
From there, impulses are sent to the:




Superior olivary nucleus
Inferior colliculus (auditory reflex center)
From there, impulses pass to the auditory cortex
Auditory pathways decussate so that both
cortices receive input from both ears
Chapter , Dr. Enriquez
109
Simplified Auditory Pathways
Chapter , Dr. Enriquez
Figure 15.34
110
Auditory Processing

Pitch is perceived by:



Loudness is perceived by:



The primary auditory cortex
Cochlear nuclei
Varying thresholds of cochlear cells
The number of cells stimulated
Localization is perceived by superior olivary
nuclei that determine sound
Chapter , Dr. Enriquez
111
Deafness




Conduction deafness – something hampers sound
conduction to the fluids of the inner ear (e.g., impacted
earwax, perforated eardrum, osteosclerosis of the
ossicles)
Sensorineural deafness – results from damage to the
neural structures at any point from the cochlear hair cells
to the auditory cortical cells
Tinnitus – ringing or clicking sound in the ears in the
absence of auditory stimuli
Meniere’s syndrome – labyrinth disorder that affects the
cochlea and the semicircular canals, causing vertigo,
nausea, and vomiting
Chapter , Dr. Enriquez
112
Orientation

Vestibular apparatus – equilibrium receptors in
the semicircular canals and vestibule



Maintains our orientation and balance in space
Vestibular receptors monitor static equilibrium
Semicircular canal receptors monitor dynamic
equilibrium
Chapter , Dr. Enriquez
113
Anatomy of Maculae

Maculae are the sensory receptors for static
equilibrium





Contain supporting cells and hair cells
Each hair cell has stereocilia and kinocilium
embedded in the otolithic membrane
Otolithic membrane – jellylike mass studded with
tiny CaCO3 stones called otoliths
Utricular hairs respond to horizontal movement
Saccular hairs respond to vertical movement
Chapter , Dr. Enriquez
114
Anatomy of Maculae
Chapter , Dr. Enriquez
Figure 15.35
115
Receptor Cells

Otolithic movement in the direction of the
kinocilia:



Movement in the opposite direction:



Depolarizes vestibular nerve fibers
Increases the number of action potentials generated
Hyperpolarizes vestibular nerve fibers
Reduces the rate of impulse propagation
From this information, the brain is informed of
the changing position of the head
Chapter , Dr. Enriquez
116
Effect of Gravity on Utricular
Receptor Cells
Chapter , Dr. Enriquez
Figure 15.36
117
Crista Ampullaris and Dynamic
Equilibrium

The crista ampullaris (or crista):





Is the receptor for dynamic equilibrium
Is located in the ampulla of each semicircular canal
Responds to angular movements
Each crista has support cells and hair cells that
extend into a gel-like mass called the cupula
Dendrites of vestibular nerve fibers encircle the
base of the hair cells
Chapter , Dr. Enriquez
118
Crista Ampullaris and Dynamic
Equilibrium
Chapter , Dr. Enriquez
119
Figure 15.37b
Receptors


Cristae respond to changes in velocity of rotatory
movements of the head
Directional bending of hair cells in the cristae
causes:



Depolarizations, and rapid impulses reach the brain at
a faster rate
Hyperpolarizations, and fewer impulses reach the
brain
The result is that the brain is informed of
rotational movements of the head
Chapter , Dr. Enriquez
120
Rotary Head Movement
Chapter , Dr. Enriquez
Figure 15.37d
121
Balance and Orientation Pathways

There are three
modes of input for
balance and
orientation




Vestibular receptors
Visual receptors
Somatic receptors
These receptors
allow our body to
respond reflexively
Chapter , Dr. Enriquez
122
Figure 15.38
Developmental Aspects



All special senses are functional at birth
Chemical senses – few problems occur until the
fourth decade, when these senses begin to
decline
Vision – optic vesicles protrude from the
diencephalon during the fourth week of
development


These vesicles indent to form optic cups and their
stalks form optic nerves
Later, the lens forms from ectoderm
Chapter , Dr. Enriquez
123
Developmental Aspects




Vision is not fully functional at birth
Babies are hyperopic, see only gray tones, and
eye movements are uncoordinated
Depth perception and color vision is well
developed by age five and emmetropic eyes are
developed by year six
With age the lens loses clarity, dilator muscles
are less efficient, and visual acuity is drastically
decreased by age 70
Chapter , Dr. Enriquez
124
Developmental Aspects





Ear development begins in the three-week
embryo
Inner ears develop from otic placodes, which
invaginate into the otic pit and otic vesicle
The otic vesicle becomes the membranous
labyrinth, and the surrounding mesenchyme
becomes the bony labyrinth
Middle ear structures develop from the
pharyngeal pouches
The branchial groove develops into outer ear
structures
Chapter , Dr. Enriquez
125