Transcript INTRODUCTION TO ANATOMY

‫أ‪.‬د‪ .‬عبد الجبار الحبيطي‬




Anatomy is the science of structure& function
of the body that can be seen grossly(with out
the aid of magnification) & microscopically(with
aid of magnification).Typically when used by
itself,the term tends to mean gross or
Macroscopic Anatomy.
Clinical Anatomy is the study of macroscopic
structure & function of the body as relates to
the practice of medicine and other health
sciences.
Basic Anatomy is the study of the minimal
amount of Anatomy consistent with the
understanding of the overall structure &
function of the body.
Physiology: is the study of the function of the
body's structural machinery .



Regional Anatomy to study all structures in
one part of the body as head,neck&
abdomen.
Systemic Anatomy is a gross Anatomy of
the body studied by system
Surface Anatomy to study internal
structures as they relate to the overlying
skin.




Cytology to study the structure of cells.
Histology to study the tissues ( Tissue is
group of cells having same function ).
Cytochemistry to study the chemical activity
in the cells.
Histochemistry to study the chemical activity
in the tissues.






Pathological Anatomy: study of structural
chamges caused by diseases.
Radiographic Anatomy:Study of internal
structure visualized by X—ray.
Molecular Biology: study of anatomical
structures at a sub-cellular level.
Neuro-anatomy: Specialized type og Gross
Anatomy deals with the Nervous system.
Embryology:Study developmental changes of the
body before birth.
Developmental Anatomy: Tracing structural
changes throughout life


The accurate use of anatomic terms by
medical personnels enables them to
communicate with their colleagues both
nationally & internationally.
Without Anatomic terms ,one cannot
accurately discuss or record the abnormal
functions of joints,action of
muscles,alteration of position of organs,or
the exact location of swellings or tumors.


All description of the human body are
based on the assumption that the person is
standing erect,with the upper limbs by the
sides and the face & palms of the hands are
directed forward.This is the so called
Anatomical position.The varous parts of the
body are then described in relation to
certain imaginary planes.
In Anatomical position the body is erect with
the feet slightly a parts,palm facing forward&
thumbs pointed a way from body.





This is a vertical plane passing through the centre of the
body dividing it into right & left halves which are mirror to
each other.Any term situated to one or the other side of the
median plane and parallel to it are termed paramidiam or
sagittal plane.
Any structure situated nearer to the median plane of the body
than another is said to be related to the other.Similarly a
structure that lies farther away from the median plane than
another is said to be lateral to the other.
The Coronal planes: these are planes which are imaginary
vertical planes at right angles to the median plane.
Horizontal or Transverse planes: are planes at right angles to
both the median & coronal plane.
The terms Anterior & posterior indicate the front & back
of the body respectively.



To describe the relationship of two
structures,one is said to be anterior or posterior
to the other in so far as it is closer to the anterior
or posterior body surface,but in describing the
hand ,the terms palmar& dorsal surfaces are
used in stead of anterior & posterior.In
describing the foot ,the terms planter & dorsal
are used instead of lower & upper surfaces
The terms proximal & distal describe the
relative distances from the roots of the
limbs,for example ,the arm is proximal to the
forearm & the hands distal to forearm.
The terms superficial & deep denote the
relative distances from the surface of the body.



The terms superior & inferior denote levels
relatively high or low with reference to the
upper & lower ends of the body.
The terms internal & external are used to
describe the relative distance of structure
from the center of an organ or body
cavity,for example,the internal carotid
artery is found inside the cranial cavity & the
external carotid artery is found outside
cranial cavity.
Superior ( Cranial) : it means toward the
head or upper part of the body e.g the head
is superior to the neck region,thorax &
abdomen.





Inferior ( caudal): it means away from head or
toward the lower part of the body e.g
abdomen is inferior to the thorax, neck is
inferior to the neck.
Lateral: away from the mid line of the body
e.g arms are lateral to the chest.
Intermediate: between amore medial & a
more lateral structures.
Ipsilateral: refers to the same side of the
body(left hand & left foot are ipsilateral).
Contralateral: refers to opposite side of the
body (left lobe of brain controls contralateral
half of the body).
Supine position of the body is lying on the
back,while prone position is lying face
downward.
 A joint is a site where 2 or more bones come
together and movement take place here.
 Some joints have no movement at all e.g sutures
between the skull bones.
 Some joints have slight movement e.g superior
Tibio—fibular joint.
 Some joints are freely movable e.g shoulder
joint.
Flexion is a movement that takes place in 
sagittal plane e.g flexion of Elbow joint(
approximates anterior surface of the forearm to
anterior surface of the arm






Extension means straightening the joint &
usually takes place in a posterior direction.
Abduction is a movement of a limb away from
the midline of the body in the coronal plane.
Adduction is a movement of a limb toward
the body in in the coronal plane.
In the fingers & toes abduction means
spreading of fingers or toes,while Adduction
means drawing together the fingers or
toes.
The movements of the Thumb are a little
more complicated e.g Circumbduction of
thumb.
Circumduction is combination in sequence of
the movements of flexion,extension
,abduction & adduction as of the thumb &
the limb( at shoulder joint).
 Rotation is movement of a part of the body
around a long axis.
 Medial rotation is movement results in the
anterior surface of the part facing medially.
 Lateral rotation movement result in the
anterior surface of the part facing laterally.
Lateral flexion is a movement of the trunk in 
coronal plane.

Pronation of the forearm is a medial rotation of
F.A in such amanner that the palm of the hand
faces posteriorly.
 Supination of the F.A is a lateral rotation of the
F.A from the pronated position so that the palm
of the hand comes to face anteriorly.
 Inversion is movement of the foot so that the
sole faces in a medial direction.
 Eversion is the opposite movement of the foot
so that the sole faces in a lateral direction.
 Axial means the head,neck & trunk regions .
Appendicular means appendages or limbs. 



Dorsal cavity protect the Nervous system &
is divided into Cranial cavity ( the skull
which houses the brain) and the Vertebral
cavity( within the vertebral column & houses
the spinal cord).
Ventral cavity houses the internal organs (
viscera) .Is divided into 2 subdivisions:
Thoracic ( contains pleural cavities,lungs &
heart) & Abdominal cavity ( contains the
peritoneal cavity and its viscera).





Bone is a living tissue capable of changing its
structure as the result of stresses to which it is
subjected.Like other tissue bone consists of
cells,fibers & intercellular matrix.It is hard because
of the calcification of its extracellular matrix&
possesses a degree of elasticity because of the
presence of organic fibers..The main functions of
bones are the followings:
1-Protective function e.g skull( for brain ),vertebral
column ( spinal cord),the sternum & ribs protect the
thoracic & upper abdominal viscera.
2- It serves as a lever as seen in the long bones of
the limbs.
3-Main storage area for calcium salts.
4-It houses & protects within its cavities the delicate
blood—forming bone marrow.



The bone exists in two forms: a compact &
cancellous
The compact bone appears as a solid mass.
The cancellous bone consists of a
branching network of trabeculae.The
trabeculae are arranged in such a manner as
to resists the stress & strains to which the
bone is exposed.


The bones can be classified as follows based
on their general shape: Long bones,short
bones,Flat bones,irregular bones & sesamoid
bones
The long bones are found in the limbs e.g
the humerus& femur.Their length are
greater than their breadth.The ends of long
bones are composed of cancellous bone
surrounded by a thin layer of compact
bone& the articular surfaces of the ends of
the bones are covered by hyaline cartilage.


The short bones are found in the hand &
foot as carpal & tarsal bones. They are
roughly cuboidal in shape& composed of
cancellous bone surrounded by a thin layer
of compact bone.The short bones are
covered by periosteum & the articular
surfaces are covered by hyaline cartilage.
The flat bonesare seen in the vault of the
skull ( the frontal & parietal bones).The
sternum & scapula although irregular are
included in this group..




The irregular bones are composed of a thin shell
of compact bone with an interior made up of
cancellous bone,they include those bones not
assigned to the previous groups(e.g some skull
bones,vertebrae& the pelvic bones).
The sesamoid bones are small nodules of bone that
are seen in certain tendons.The largest sesamoid
bone is the patella,which is found in the tendon of
Quadriceps femoris muscle.The function of sesamoid
bone is to reduce friction on the tendon.
The regional classification of bones are Axial &
Appendicular skeleton
The Axial Skeleton include Skull bones ( 22)
cranium of 8 & face bones 14 in number.
The auditory ossicles (6 in number )
 Hyoid bone ( 1 ).
 Vertebrae including sacrum & coccyx ( 26
in number).
 Sternum ( 1)
 Ribs ( 24 in number)
 Shoulder girdile ( 2 clavicles & 2 scapulae)
Upper extrimities 

Humerus ( 2 ), Radius ( 2 ),Ulna ( 2) ,carpal
( 16) ,metacarpal ( 10),phalanges(28).
 Pelvic girdle( 2 hip bones)
 Lower extrimities
includes:
 Femur (2),patella (2),fibula (2),tibia (2),tarsals
(14),metatarsals (10),phalanges (28)
Total 206 bones . 



There are three types of muscles: skeletal (
attached to bones & having somatic nerve
supply),Smooth muscles( related to wall of
viscera & other involuntary structures ,being
innervated by autonomic nervous system) &
Cardiac muscles related to the heart also are
innervated by autonomic nervous system..
The Skelatal muscles are attached to bones (
origin & insertion) and produce movement of the
skeleton.They are known as voluntary muscles
& are made up of striped muscle fibers.


A skeletal muscle has 2 or more
attachments.The fixed attachment is the ORIGIN
& the movable attachment is the INSERTION of
the muscle,while the fleshy part is its belly.The
ends of the muscles are attached to bones,
cartilage & ligaments.Occasionally flattened
muscles are attached by a thin sheet( strong
fibrous)known as Aponeurosis(Abdominal Ms)
A raphe is an interdigitation of the tendinous
ends of fibers of flat M.Each single M.F is
surrounded by Endomysium,group of fibers (
bundle) are surrounded by Perimysium,while all
the bundles are surrounded by Epimysium.M.Fs
may be arranges as Pennate along the line of pull
for e.g Unippenate ( Palmar interosei),Bippenate
( Dorsal interossei) & multipennate ( Deltoid M).





1-Excitability( irritability) i.e its stimulation
leads to impulses that generates action
potential
2-Conductibility i.e the action potential is
conducted along the plasma membrane.
3-Contractility i.e the ability to contract &
becomes shorter.
4-Extensibility i.e extended or stretched e.g
Biceps & Triceps.
5-Elasticity i.e tends to return to its original
position after contraction.





The skeletal M work in the following 4 ways:
A-Prim mover e.g Quadriceps Femoris in the
movement of extending the knee joint.
B-Antagonist: any M opposes the action of the prim
move is considered as Antagonist e.g Biceps femoris
opposes the action of Quadriceps femoris when knee
joint is extended.
C- Fixator: A fixator M contracts isometrically to
stabilizes the origin of the prim mover so that it
can acts efficiency for e.g the Ms attaching the
shoulder girdle to the trunk contract as fixator to
allow the Deltoid M to act on the shoulder joint.
D-Synergist: in many locations in the body the prim
mover M crosses several joints before it reaches
the joint at which its main action takes place.In
order to prevent movements of these intermediate
joints a group of Ms ( Synergistics)contract &
stabilizes the intermediate joints. E.g flexors &
extensors of fingers.








Naming of the muscles are according to the
following points:
1-Shape of the Muscle e.g Teres ( round) major &
minor.
2-Size of the Muscle e.g Gluteus Maximus.
3-Number of heads the muscle have e.g Biceps &
Triceps.
4-Position of the Muscle e.g
Supraspinatous,Infraspinatous & Subscapularis.
5-Depth e.g Obturator internus & Externous.
6-Attachment e.g Sternocleidomastoid muscle.
7-Actions of the muscle or group of muscles as
e.g Flexors & Extensors.
The nervous system can be divided in to
Central & Peripheral nervous system.
 The Central nervous system ( C.N.S) includes
the brain + the spinal cord & Peripheral
nervous system ( P.N.S) includes 12 pairs of
cranial nerves + 31 pairs of spinal nerves.
Functionally the nervous system can be 
subdivided into Somatic( controle voluntary
structures) & Autonomic N.S ( Sympathetic &
parasympathetic) which controls involuntary
activities as Respiratory,cardiovascular systems
..

On dissection ,the cranial & spinal nerves are
seen as grayish white cords.They are made up
of bundles of N.Fs( axons)supported by
delicate areolar tissue.
Total of 31 pairs of spinal nerves leave the 
spinal cord & pass through the intervertebral
foramina in the vertebral column.They includes
8 pairs of cervical nerves, 12 pairs of thoracic ,
5 lumbars , 5 sacral & 1 coccygeal.Each spinal
nerve is connected to the S.C by 2 roots
,anterior ( ventral) & posterior ( dorsal ) roots.The
anterior root contains motor fibers ( Efferent)
,while posterior root contains sensory ( Afferent
) fibers.The motor fibers goes to skeletal muscle
fibers & cause them to contract& their cells of
origin are located in anterior horn of the S.C (
lower motor neurons).



The posterior root contains bundles of
sensory fiberscarrying impulses ( sensations to
the C.N.S) and are called Afferent & the cell
bodies of these N.Fs are situated in a swelling
on the posterior root ganglion.At the
intervertebral foramen both roots unite together
forming the spinal nerve proper( mixture of
N.Fs),after emerging from the intervertebral
foramen ,the spinal nerve divides in to 2 rami (
contains sensory & motor fibers) a ventral &
dorsal rami to supply skin & muscles.
At the root of the limbs ,the ventral rami join
together forming Plexuses as Cervica &
Brachial Plexuses at the root of the neck,and
Lumbar & Sacral Plexuses at the root of the
lower limbs..
A-Superficial fascia,is a general coating of the
body beneath the skin made up of loose
areolar tissue with varying amount of fat,.It
function to conserve body temperature & it
fasciltate movement of the skin.
B-Deep fascia which is a fibrous sheet 
investing the body beneath the superficial
fascia & is devoid of fat.It function in keeping
the underlying structures in position & in
providing extra surface for attachment of
some muscles.It has the following
modifications:






1-aponeurosis as for e.g Bicepital
aponeurosis& aponeurosis of anterior abdominal
wall.
2-Retinaculum as for e.g Flexor & extensor
retinaculae at junction of F.A & hand.
3-Bursa as between the sking & underlying
bones or related to some Ms tendons.
4-Sheeth around some arteries as Carotid
sheeth.
5-Capsules of joints.
The Bursa is a closed sac of synovial
membrane containing little amount of synovial
fluid,it reduces friction & permits complete
freedom of movement within limited range e.g
subacromial & subdeltoid bursa.






A-Fibrous joints which are immovable joints ( no movement) as for e.g
Sutures of the skull.
B-Cartilagenous joints,which could be primary one where the bones are
connected by hyaline cartilage & the joint is temporary as for e .g
Spheno-occipital joint ,or could be secondary cartilaginous joint
united by a disc of fibrocartilage e.g Symphysis pubis.
C-Synovial joint where there are articular cartilages covering the
opposed ends of 2 bones,capsule to cross the gap of the joint &
connecting the 2 bones in addition there is synovial membrane & cavity
in side the joint to reduces friction completely & allow freedom of
movements at the joint>The synovial joint are classified as follows:
1-Uniaxial synovial joint as for e.g Hing (elbow joint) & Pivot (upper
radioulnar joint).
2-Biaxial as for e.g Condylar(temporomandibular) & Ellipsoid (Wrist
joint).
3-Multiaxial e.g Saddle (Carpometacarpal joint) & Ball and socket (
Shoulder joint ).






The characteristics of synovial joints are :
1-Articular ends covered by hyaline
cartilage.
2-the presence of synovial membrane.
3- The joint contains synovial fluids.
4- The joint is strengthened by some
ligaments .
5-Some degree of movent always present till
complete freedom of movement.




The smooth muscles : each single muscle
is spindle –shaped with centrally placed
nuceus,smooth muscles are arranged in
bundles or sheets.They lack striations &
are under the controle of Autonomic nervous
system & they are present in the followings:
1-In the iris.
2- In the wall of all blood vessels.
3-In the walls of the Gastro-intestinal
tract.




4-In the walls of the respiratory passages (
Trachea & bronchii).
5-In the waals & tubes of the Genitourinary
system.
6-In the erector pilli muscles.
The Cardiac muscles: are striated muscles that
branched & unite together & found within the
wall of the heart namely in the nyocardium.They
show an intercalated discs& have the ability for
spontaneous &rhythmical contraction .The
specialized cardiac muscle fibers form the
conducting system of the heart.The cardiac Ms
resemble the striated as having striations &
also resemble smooth muscles as under the
controle of autonomic N.S.


Are tubes concerened with the conduction &
storage of the blood.They includes arteries
which conduct the oxygenated blood from
the heart to all tissues and organs in the
body(except the pulmonary arteries) & veins
which store non –oxygenated blood & return
it to the heart( except the pulmonary veins
contains oxygenated blood).The vessels are
classified as follows:
1-Conducting (Elastic) or big arteries as
the Aorta.




2-Distributing ( muscular or medium sized)
as the Brachial artery.
3-Resistance vessels as the arterioles.
4-Exchange vessels as Capillaries.
5-Capacitance vessels (storage) as veins.


It covers the body surface & consists of 2
layes outer Epidermis ( stratified squamous
epithelium which is keratinized at some places)
& inner layer known as Dermis>Under the
skin we can see superficial fascia &
subcutaneous tissue .The skin is rich in sensory
nerve endings>The skin has the following
Appendages :
a-The nails.
B-Sweat glands
c-Sebacous glands
d-Hair follicles.

Consists of Lymphatic tissues (
thymus,spleen,lymphatic nodules & lymph
nodes) & lymphatic vessels.They collect
the lymph & bring it back to the circulatory
system.
Best Wishes
&
Thank you