Transcript A word

How Words Are Learned
指導教授: Victor Shen
班級: 碩研英語一甲
研究生: M99C0112 Tina
M99C0207 Carrey
Outline
What Is A Word?
Word Sets
Classification of Morphemes
Phonemic Awareness
Word Learning Processes in Typically-Development Children
Word Retention
Incidental Vocabulary Learning through Reading
What Is A Word ?
A word is a single unit of language which has meaning
and can be spoken or written, used with others to form a
sentence and typically shown with a space on either side
when written or printed.
Word Sets
Every word is composed of one or more morphemes.
What Is A Morpheme?
A morpheme is the smallest unit of language that carries an
independent meaning or grammatical function.
Two Kinds of Words －
1. Simple Words (a morpheme)
e.g. and, boy, act, man, hunt
2. Complex Words (two or more morphemes)
e.g. boy-s, hunt-er-s, gentle-man-li-ness
Classes of Simple Words
1. Content Words (Open Class Words)－
Making up the major word classes － nouns, verbs, adverbs,
and adjectives in English.
e.g. book, talk, beautiful, lovely
2. Function Words (Closed Class Words) －
Including conjunctions, prepositions, the articles, and pronouns.
e.g. and, the, in, it
Classification of Morphemes
Free Morphemes －
Morphemes that can constitute words by themselves.
e.g. man, sick, tree
Bound Morphemes －
Morphemes that cannot occur unattached
Affix: A morpheme that does not belong to a lexical category
and is always bound.
Prefixes: Morphemes that occur only before other ones.
e.g. preview, unlikely, impossible
Suffixes: Morphemes that occur only after other ones.
e.g. believable, handful, neighborhood
Phonemic awareness
Definition－
“the understanding that a word is made up of a series of
separate sounds” and “the ability to pick out and manipulate
sounds in spoken words” (Blevins, 1998, p. 28).
The main goal of phonemic awareness instruction －
Helping children to develop the awareness that spoken words
can be segmented into phonemes and that the letters can represent
these segmented units (Blachman et al., 2000).
Phoneme－
A phoneme is the smallest unit of sound in a word.
e.g. “man” (three phonemes): /m/ /a/ /n/
“sleep” (four phonemes): /s/, /l/, /i/, /p/
Teaching children the different words－
begin with the same phoneme
e.g. “sun”, “seal”, “sailor” and “sand”
end with the same phoneme
e.g. “bus”, “house”, “octopus”, “dress”
Developing their phonemic awareness
(Bryne & Fielding-Barnsley, 1995).
Adams (1990) －
Five levels of phonemic awareness in terms of abilities.
(1) to hear rhymes and alliteration as measured by knowledge
of nursery rhymes
(2) to do oddity tasks
(3) to blend and split syllables
(4) to perform phonemic segmentation
e.g. counting out the number of phonemes in a word
(5) to perform phoneme manipulation tasks
e.g. adding, deleting a particular phoneme and regenerating
a word from the remainder
Word learning processes
in typically-development children
During the first year of life－
Vocabulary acquisition is initially slow, particularly in terms
of productive vocabulary (Hoff, 2001).
After they begin producing first words－
Children will add 8 to 11 words to their vocabularies each
month (Benedict, 1979).
The incremental rate of vocabulary acquisition－
Once children average around 50 to 150 words in their
expressive lexicons (Bates et al., 1994)
By 18 months of age－
Carey (1978) : Children will learn around 9 new words
per day, or about one per waking hour.
Reznick and Goldfield (1992) : The more conservative
estimate of 22 to 37 words per month.
By 30 months of age－
The median lexicon contains 573 words.
Acquired around 50 words－
Children become rapid word learners, capable of
acquiring words even after minimal exposure to the
word and its referent
(Lederberg, 2003).
Three processes of word learning－
First Stage
Fast mapping
Second Stage Slow mapping or Word retention
Third Stage
Word extension
Fast Mapping (at an early age)－
The ability to map a word to its referent after only a few
exposures (Carey, 1978).
The early connections between words and referents in
memory and is featured by limited semantic knowledge.
(McGregor, Friedman, Reilly, & Newman, 2002).
When does “fast mapping ” occurs?
Heibeck & Markman (1987) －A child uses linguistic and
non-linguistic information to pair a new label with its referent.
e.g. Carey (1978) －
showed 3- and 4-year-olds
an blue plate and a green plate (the same shape)
an red cup and a green cup (the same shape)
instructed the child
“the chromium plate, not the blue one, the chromium one”
“the chromium cup, not the red one, the chromium one.”
selected the green plate and cup, without knowing the meaning of
“chromium.”
(fast mapping
the first phase in lexical acquisition.)
Slow Mapping or Word Retention－
It has received less attention, perhaps because fast mapping
is equal to word learning (Horst & Samuelson, 2008) .
focus on fast mapping and not the retention phase
led to an overestimation of toddlers’ word learning abilities
Young children have much more difficulty with the slow mapping
phase of word learning than with the fast mapping process.
Four experiments with 2-year-olds－
presented with a fast mapping example
followed by a 5-minute delay
presentation of a retention/extension example
Participants had no difficulty expressing word-object pairings
in the fast mapping example, but could not retain or extend
new or unusual names.
Horst and Samuelson concluded
Fast mapping should not be combined with word learning in
young children.
Horst and Samuelson’s work－
the importance of memory load and perceptual salience in
retaining a word-object link over time.
Word retention influenced by memory (memory consolidation )－
Consolidation is the process in the brain by which a memory
strengthens over time, without additional experience with that
memory.
(McGregor, Rohlfing, Bean and Marschner, 2009).
40 two-year-olds received training
the spatial term “under”
Some of the children－received a gesture cue.
Other children－viewed an photograph demonstrating “under”
Remaining children－received no additional support in learning
“under” except verbal training.
Only after a delay of two to three days
Children who received the gestural support performed better
than the other two groups.
McGregor and colleagues－the gesture-enhanced memory
consolidating over time.
Word Extension－
the process of inducing a target object to other instances of it.
The ability to extend words
an important step in language learning
allows us to form category boundaries for different properties
and objects in the environment.
By about 12 months of age－
having a basic understanding that words can refer to categories
rather than the original object and can extend to multiple examples
(Hirsh-Pasek, Golinkoff, and Hollich, 1999).
Two-year-olds－
extending new names to new objects that differ from the
original example in size or color
(Behrend, Scofield, and Kleinknecht; 2001).
Word Retention
Words are stored in three types of memory－
Sensory Stores
Working Memory
Permanent Memory
Sensory Stores
The sensory stores take in the variety of colors,
tones, tastes, and smells that people experience each
day and retain them for a very brief time.
Most of the information in the sensory store
disappears very rapidly because it is not processed.
Working Memory (Short-Term Memory)
Functions － Storage and Processing
Sousa (2001) －
Once information enters the working memory
about 15 seconds while the brain decides to process the
information or to discard it (about 98% of all incoming
information is discarded at this point).
The brain is making an important decision—
whether to move the information into permanent storage or
to toss it out as unimportance.
Permanent Memory (Long-Term Memory)
“Permanent memory is a repository of our knowledge of
the world” (Carroll, 1999, p.49).
Permanent memory holds all of the information we have
retained from the past that is not currently active.
used to interpret new experiences, and the new events may
later be added to this storehouse of information.
Incidental Vocabulary Learning
Through Reading
Incidental vocabulary learning－
The learners acquire the words without intending to learn.
The meaning of a new word is acquired unconsciously as a result
of repeated exposures in a range of context.
a by-product cognitive activity involving comprehension.
This is similar to the models of L1 vocabulary acquisition, which
places repeated exposure to words in meaningful collocation
(Gass, 2000) .
Studies on first language acquisition －
Extensive reading over time had a positive effect on L1 learners’
vocabulary acquisition and expansion
(Krashen, 1989; Paribakht & Wesche, 1997).
Through extensive reading －
L2 advanced learners actually acquired most of their vocabulary
knowledge, except for the first few thousand most common words
(Coady, 1997; Grabe & Stoller, 1997; Huckin & Coady, 1999).
The advantages of incidental vocabulary learning through
extensive reading－
1) Giving learners a richer sense of a word by offering various
contexts.
2) Making vocabulary acquisition and reading happen
simultaneously.
3) Be more individualized and learner-based because the
readers’ vocabulary acquisition depends on the learners’ own
choice of reading.
(Hcukin & Coady, 1999)
Studies on incidental vocabulary learning－
Shu, Anderson, and Zhang (1995)
－ supported L1 incidental vocabulary learning
Chinese elementary students in Beijing could incidentally
learn about 8% of the new words in the reading task.
American students could acquire incidentally around 10% of
the unknown words.
Hulstijn, Hollander, and Creidanus (1996) －
L2 advanced students could incidentally learn more
unknown words that appeared three times in a text than
the other words appearing only once.
Chang (2002) －
12th graders in Taiwan could learn 10% of the words
appearing three times and 4% of the words appearing
only once.
Reoccurrence of the same word in a text led to more successful
incidental vocabulary learning.
Luppescu and Day (1993), Knight (1994), and Chang (2002) －
L2 learners could learn the meanings of unknown English
words incidentally from reading
The learning rate was quite low.
The rate of L2 incidental vocabulary learning
ranged from 3% to 6% when reading without any aids
ranged from 6% to 18% when reading with the assistance
of bilingual dictionaries, electronic dictionaries, or glosses.
Wantanabe (1997) and Paribakht & Wesche (1999)
－ L2 incidental vocabulary learning through reading was
unpredictable and not always efficient.
Hulstijn, Hollander and Greidanus (1996)
－ Incidental vocabulary learning was not thought to occur often
due to L2 learners’ failure in learning the meanings of unfamiliar
words in texts spontaneously.
Why?
There were several reasons －
1) Learners tended to ignore a large rate of unknown words,
which they thought irrelevant to the main idea for global
comprehension.
2) Learners often considered they knew the unfamiliar words
that they in fact did not know.
3) The long contextual information might direct readers’
attention to the meaning not to the unfamiliar word form.
4) Readers’ guessing might be imprecise and their wrong
inferences caused them to learn the unknown words incorrectly.
5) The non-reoccurrence of newly met words made incidental
vocabulary learning inefficient
(Hulstijn et al., 1996).
References
Adams, M. J. (1990). Beginning to read: Thinking and learning about print.
Cambridge, MA: MIT press.
Bates, E., Marchman, V., Thal, D., Fenson, L., Dale, P., Reznick, J. S., et al.
(1994). Developmental and stylistic variation in the composition of early
vocabulary. Journal of Child Language, 21, 85-123.
Behrend, D. A., Scofield, J., & Kleinknecht, E. E. (2001). Beyond fast
mapping: Young children's extensions of novel words and novel facts.
Developmental Psychology, 37, 698-705.
Benedict, H. (1979). Early lexical development: Comprehension and
production. Journal of Child Language, 6, 183-200.
Blachman, B. A., Ball, E. W., Blacks, R., & Tangel, D. M. (2000). Road to the
code: A phonological awareness program for young Children. Baltimore,
MD: Paul H. Brookes.
Blevins, W. (1998). Phonics from A to Z: A practical guide. New York:
Scholastic.
Bryne, B., & Fielding-Barnsley, R. (1995). Evaluation of a program to teach
phonemic awareness to young children. Journal of Educational Psychology,
87, 488-503.
Carey, S. (1978). The child as a word learner. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
Carroll, D. W. (1999). Psychology of language. Pacific Grove, CA: Brooks &
Cole Publishing.
Chang, S. M. (2002). The roles of marginal glosses and pocket electronic
dictionaries in EFL incidental vocabulary learning (Unpublished Master’s
thesis). National Taiwan Normal University, Taipei.
Gass, S. (1999). Discussion: Incidental vocabulary learning. Studies in Second
Language Acquisition, 21, 319-333.
Grabe, W., & Stoller, F. (1997). Reading and vocabulary development in a second
language: A case study. In J. Coady & T. Huckin (Eds.), Second Language
Vocabulary Acquisition: A Rationale for Pedagogy (pp. 98-122). Cambridge,
UK: University Press.
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Thompson Learning.
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Semantic representation and naming in young children. Journal of Speech,
Language, and Hearing Research, 45(2), 332-346.
McGregor, K.K., Rohlfing, K.J., Bean, A., & Marschner, E. (2009). Gesture as
a support for word learning: The case of under. Journal of Child Language,
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for Pedagogy (pp. 174–200). Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
Reznick, J., & Goldfield, B. A. (1992). Rapid change in lexical development in
comprehension and production. Developmental Psychology, 28, 406-413.
Horst, J. S., & Samuelson, L. K. (2008). Fast mapping but poor retention by
24-monthold infants. Infancy, 13, 1288-157.
Huckin, T., & Coady, J. (1999). Incidental vocabulary acquisition in a
second language: A review. Studies in Second Language Acquisition,
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Sousa, D. (2001). How the brain learns (2nd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA:
Corwin Press.
Hulstijn, J. H., Hollander, M., & Greidanus, T. (1996). Incidental
vocabulary learning by advanced foreign language students: The
influence of marginal glosses, dictionary use, and reoccurrence of
unknown words. The Modern Language Journal, 80(3), 327-339.
Knight, S. (1994). Dictionary use while reading: The effects on
comprehension and vocabulary acquisition for students of different verbal
abilities. The Modern Language Journals, 78(3), 285-299.
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meanings while reading: A Chinese and American cross-cultural study.
Reading Research Quarterly, 30(1), 76-95.
The Effect of English Word Exposure
Frequency in the Simplified Novel on
Incidental Vocabulary Acquisition
by EFL Senior High School Students
in Taiwan
Liu, Yu-feng
August, 2002
Introduction
- Background and Motivation
- Purpose of Study
- Research Question
Background and Motivation
In the past, the specific skills of words learning was
focusing mainly on test-oriented reading materials which
failed to provide students with abundant opportunities of
repeated encounters of the unfamiliar words, not to
mention broaden their vocabulary and develop the
students’ reading interest in a meaningful and pleasant
way. however, Various studies shifted the traditional
approach to suggest that word exposure frequency
plays a conducive factor in incidental acquisition of
vocabulary in recent years.
Purpose of Study
The purpose of this study is to
investigate the effect of the word
exposure frequency in novels on
incidental vocabulary acquisition
Research Questions
(1)Do EFL senior high school students score better in
words at high exposure frequency ranges than in
those at low exposure frequency ranges?
(2) Are there any differences among EFL senior high
school students with high, mid and low English
proficiency in incidental word gains?
Research Questions
(3) Are there any differences among EFL senior high
school students with high, mid and low English
proficiency at different word exposure frequency
ranges?
(4) What is the average optimal word exposure
frequency for EFL senior high school students to
pick up the word incidentally?
(5) What vocabulary learning strategies may students
with high, mid, and low English proficiency apply
when reading the simplified novel?
Literature Review
-The Nature of Vocabulary Development
-Knowing a Word
-Incidental Vocabulary Learning Through Reading
-Vocabulary Building Through Word Exposure
-Learning Words in the Context
-EFL Students’ Vocabulary Learning Strategies
The Nature of Vocabulary Development
To second language learners, through
repeated exposures obtained from
reading for comprehension, their mental
processing of vocabulary would be
developed (Paribakht & Wesche, 1997).
Knowing a Word
According to theories of human memory
(Baddeley, 1987), when a word was recalled, the
learner evaluated it subconsciously, and decided
how it was different from others and continued to
change his interpretation until he reached the
exact meaning that fitted the context. With the
route successfully used several times, the word
was reinforced, and the retention of the word was
therefore enhanced.
Incidental Vocabulary Learning
Through Reading
Krashen proposed that incidental
learning occurred through his Input
Hypothesis with reading offering the
comprehensible input that led naturally
to acquisition. (1989)
Input Hypothesis (1982):
“the more comprehensible input the
learners received, the more language
acquisition they might acquire.”
Vocabulary Building Through
Word Exposure
The results of Rott’s (1999) study indicated that
the frequency of exposure the unfamiliar
vocabulary that learners encountered had an
impact on the amount of vocabulary gained.
Learning Words in the Context
Beheydt (1987) also left no doubt to his view:
“the first guideline would be that vocabulary
must be learned in context. The meanings of
words are more easily semanticized if they are
embedded in a meaningful context” (p. 63).
Oxford and Scarcella (1994) wrote: “By far the
most useful vocabulary learning strategy is
“guessing” from context” (p. 263).
EFL Students’ Vocabulary Learning
Strategies
Nagy and Herman (1984) showed the
significance of guessing word meaning from
context in the acquisition of new vocabulary in
their study. The results revealed that when
classroom teachers allowed students the
opportunity to use context to elucidate meaning
of new words, vocabulary growth was evident.
Guessing Word Meaning From the
Context
Clarke and Nation (1980) proposed a very simple
strategy that helped the learner look closely at the
unknown words.
Step (1): Look at the unknown word and decide its
part of speech.
Step (2): Look at the clause or sentence containing
the unknown word.
Step (3): Look at the relationship between the
clause or sentence containing the
unknown word and other sentences or
paragraphs. Sometimes this relationship
will be signaled by a conjunction like but,
because, if, when, or by an adverb like
however, as a result.
Step (4): Use the knowledge you have gained from
step 1-3 to guess the meaning of the word.
Step (5): Check that your guess is correct. (pp. 162163)
Methodology
- Participants
- Instruments
- Procedures
- Treatments
- Data Analysis
- Conclusions
Subjects
Instruments
~ Treatments~
A Weekly Reading Schedule for “The Ring”
procedures
Taking Basic Proficiency Test
Dividing 124 first-year senior high school students into three groups
High proficiency Group
(34)
Mid Proficiency Group
(56)
Low Proficiency Group
(34)
Distributing the first simplified novel, The Ring, and a weekly reading schedule
to the subjects
Following the weekly
reading schedule, then
asking subjects to finish
the assigned chapters
in class, and collecting
the book when the class
was over(Totally five
weeks)
(1) Giving 3 Vocabulary Multiple-Choice tests
unexpectedly (10 minutes each)Collecting
the test sheets and answer sheets
(2) Distributing the questionnaires
collecting them ten minutes later
(3) Adding up the scores of the three
Vocabulary Multiple-Choice tests
Data Analysis
Results
RQ1: The Subjects’ Vocabulary Gains
at the Three Frequency Ranges
RQ2: The Word Gains of Subjects with
High, Mid, and Low English Proficiency
RQ3: The Performance of the Subjects with
Three English Proficiency at Three Exposure
Frequency Ranges
RQ4: Optimal Exposure Frequency Range for
Acquiring Words
The Curves for Three Word Exposure Frequency and Word Gains of Subjects
with Three Proficiency Groups
RQ5: FFL Subjects’ Opinions and Strategies of
Vocabulary Learning
The questionnaire revealed that many EFL senior
high students did not like reading the assigned
simplified novel.
In dealing with the new words, most students failed to
make good use of inferring word meanings from the
contexts and analyzing word parts.
Many students considered the assigned simplified
novel appropriate; few deemed it difficult.
Conclusions
(1) EFL senior high students in this study demonstrated
vocabulary gains through repeated encounters of the
new words while reading the assigned simplified
English novel.
(2) Word exposure frequency played a remarkable role
in the vocabulary acquisition of subjects with different
English proficiency.
(3) The optimal pick-up exposure frequency range for
EFL senior high students with different English
proficiency in this study fell at exposure frequency
range F6-F12.
(4) The questionnaire revealed that many EFL senior
high students in this study did not prefer reading
this assigned simplified novel.
(5) In dealing with the new words, most EFL senior
high students in this study would not apply the two
strategies of consulting dictionaries and memorizing
new words right away.
(6) As to the readability of the assigned simplified novel,
many EFL senior high students in this study
considered it appropriate as an outside reading
material.
Activities
1. What weakness do you think
the study has?
2. Please find out ways to
improve it?
Suggestions for Future Research
• The subjects in this study were limited to the first-year students of
Kang-shang Senior High School.
• Present findings are derived from the data of three intact classes
reading a simplified novel without the aid of dictionary.
• Neither the reading task nor the assigned simplified novel was part of
the subjects’ class syllabi.
• In this study, the subjects were asked to read only one simplified
English novel.
• The Vocabulary Multiple-Choice Tests applied in this study only
measured the receptive word knowledge.
• The new words tested in this study failed to explore the influence of
parts of speech, the length of a word, and the pronunciation of a
word on the acquisition of words.
Thanks for Your Attention^^
Reference
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