Transcript Indian Religion 2

Emerging Hinduism
after 500 BCE
The Smrtis
(Secondary Scriptures)
The
The
The
The
The
Itihasas
Puranas
Agamas
Darsanas
Law-books—dharma-sastras
The Code of Manu
1. Traditionally very ancient, the material seems to be
collected between 200 BCE and 200 AC—purported to be
written by Manu, the first law-giver
2. Some call it a “charter of Brahmin domination”—gives
an extraordinarily exalted status to the caste
3. Proclaims “divine right of kings”
4. Emphasizes dharma—usually seen as not being static
and said to contain precepts which aim at securing the
material and spiritual sustenance and growth of the
individual and society
Twelve Books in the present text:
1. The creation of the visible universe
“The universe existed in darkness, imperceptible,
and finable, undiscoverable and undiscovered; as if
immersed in sleep.
Then the self-existing power undiscovered himself,
and making the world discernible, with the five elements
and the other principles, appeared in undiminished glory,
dispelling the gloom.
He whom the mind alone can perceive, whose
essence eludes the sense-organs, who has no visible
parts, who exists from eternity, even he, the soul of all
beings, shone forth in person”
“For the sake of the preservation of this entire
creation, [Purusha], the exceedingly resplendent one,
assigned separate duties to the classes which had
sprung from his mouth, arms, thighs, and feet
Teaching, studying, performing sacrificial rites, so
too making others perform sacrificial rites, and giving
away and receiving gifts---these he assigned to the
brahmans.
Protection of the people, giving away of wealth,
performance of sacrificial rites, study, and
nonattachment to sensual pleasures—these are, in short,
the duties of a kshatriya.
Tending of cattle, giving away of wealth,
performance of sacrificial rites, study, trade and
commerce, usury, and agriculture—these are the
occupations of a vaishya.
The Lord has prescribed only occupation [karma] for
a shudra, namely, service without malice of even these
other three classes. . . . .
The very birth of Brahmans is a constant incarnation
of Dharma, God of justice, for the Brahman is born to
promote justice, and to secure happiness.
No greater crime is known on earth than flaying a
Braham, and the king, there, must not even reform in his
mind the idea of killing a priest.”
2-3. On education and the preparation for the
Brahmanical life
4. Personal ethics and conduct
5. The diet of the “twice-born”
6. Ascetic and devotional practices
“Let him patiently hear hard words. Let him not
insult anybody. Against an angry man let him not in
return show anger. Let him bless when he is cursed.
7-8. The duties of a ruler, with details governing civil
and criminal offenses
9-10. On the government of women and families and the
laws of cast
“Their fathers protect them in childhood; their
husbands protect them in youth; their sons protect them
in age. A woman is never fit for independence.
Women have no business with the text of the Veda.
Women must be honored and adorned by their
fathers, brothers, husbands, and brothers-in-law who
desire great good fortune.
Where women, verily, are honored, there the gods
rejoice; where, however, they are not honored, there all
sacred rites prove fruitless”
11. Penances, sacrifices, preparation of the soma juice,
and the ceremonies accompanying the soma sacrifice
Offenses and penances are first put into graded lists
12. The laws of karma and rebirth
The Itihasas:
(Ramayana)
(Mahabharata)
Stories in song of the noble deeds of
great national heroes
The Ramayana
I. Author—purported to be Valmiki (4th-2nd BCE)
A. Divided into 7 books (kandas), containing 24000
verses
B. Tells of adventures and misfortunes of Rama, who
was born in Ayodhya to Dashartha, king of Kosala
C. Rama, Lakshmana, and Sita exemplify Dharma—
in good times and bad---classic story of triumph of
good over evil
D. Shows how Rama generated the power to follow
the path of Dharma in all circumstances by the
discipline of tapas (heat)
E. Enacted in festivals today in Rama LIlas
F. It is said that “whoever reads and recites the holy
and life-giving Ramayana is freed from fault and
reaches heaven.”
G. Story of Ramayana
1. Balakanda—deals with childhood of the
four princes and tells how Rama and his brother
Lakshmana defeat demons and how Sita is given to
Rama through his prowess
2. Ayodhyakanda—describes how Rama is
supplanted as Dashartha’s successor and is exiled to the
forest with Lakshmana
3. Aranyakanda—deals with the forest exile
and how the sister of Ravana, the demon king of Lanka,
desires Rama. Because Rama spurns her, she abducts
Sita. Rama grieves in his loss and searches for his
beloved in vain
4. Kishindhakanda—tells how Rama aids
Sugriva, king of the monkeys, who in return sends
Hanuman to find Sita
5. Sundarakanda—describes how Hanuman finds
Sita and frustrates Ravana
6. Yuddhakanda—tells of the battle between Rama
an Ravana. Sita proves her faithfulness by throwing
herself onto a trial fire, which does not harm her. She is
vindicated by Agni
7. Uttarakanda—supplemental stories, culminating
with the death of Sita, abandonment by Rama of his
body and their reunion in heaven
H. One version of the story, Adyatma Ramanyana
developed the concept that Rama was more than a
hero—that both he and Sita were avatars of Vishnu
I. In this version, the events become allegories of what
happens in the human search for God when God seems
far away
J. Tulsi Das (c. 1532-1632 CE) wrote the
Ramacaritmanas (The Holy Lake of the Acts of Rama)—a
retelling of the story in language accessible to the
common people
K. It has been called the “Bible of northern India”
L. Ghandi used the story as the establishment of Ramarajra, a reign of truth and nonviolence as the ideal
The Mahabharata
Five brothers of the Pandavas family
I. Main theme is the rivalary between the cousins, the
Pandavas and the Kauravas, which culminates in the
greattle battle of Kuruksetra—both houses were descended
from the Vedic tribe of the Bharatas, which gave India her
name Bharat
II. Purported to be written by sage Vyasa, from
traditions occurring between (c.400 BCE-400 CE)
III. Consists of more than 1000,000 rhyming couplets in
18 books
IV. Within its many plots and sub-plots a constant theme
is the unfolding of Dharma guiding the Pandavas, and of
Adharma guiding the Kauravas
V. Intended by Vyasa to be a treatise on:
A. Life itself—including religion and ethics
B. Polity and government (artha sastra)
C. Philosophy and the pursuit of salvation (moksa
sastra)—the two longest books (Santi Parva and
Anusasana Parva) deal with these subjects
VI. Krishna is the cousin of the Pandavas—from
his instructions of the chariot driver Arjuna
comes the Bhavagavad Gita (The Song of the
Blessed Lord)
A. The Gita forms Book 6, composed of
18 sections and 700 verses—it explores
Arjuna’s crisis of conscience
B. Krishna seems to have had his origins
among the tribes of Western and Central
India, who at first seemed to be a secular
or religious leader and later deified
C. Seems to have been written a little
before the Christian era to no later than
the 2nd century CE
The Bhavagad Gita
Henry David Thoreau (18171862) American Philosopher,
Unitarian, social critic,
transcendentalist and writer:
 "In the morning I bathe my
intellect in the stupendous
and cosmogonal
philosophy of the
Bhagavad Gita in
comparison with which our
modern world and its
literature seems puny."
source: The Writings of
Henry D. Thoreau - Walden
1989. Princeton Univ. Press.
page 298.)
The reader is nowhere raised into and sustained in a bigger,
purer or rarer region of thought than in the Bhagavad-Gita.
The Gita's sanity and sublimity have impressed the minds of
even soldiers and merchants."
He also admitted that, "The religion and philosophy of
the Hebrews are those of a wilder and ruder tribe,
wanting the civility and intellectual refinements and
subtlety of Vedic culture." Thoreau's reading of literature
on India and the Vedas was extensive: he took them
seriously.
(source: The Secret Teachings of the Vedas. The Eastern Answers to the
Mysteries of Life - By Stephen Knapp volume one. pg- 22).
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. Lord Warren Hastings (1754-1826), was
the first governor general of British India.
Hastings was very much impressed and
overwhelmed with Hindu philosophy:
He wrote with a prophetic and resounding
pronouncement on the whole body of Indian
writings:
"The writers of the Indian philosophies
will survive, when the British dominion
in India shall long have ceased to exist,
and when the sources which it yielded of
wealth and power are lost to
remembrances."
(source: Philosophy of Hinduism - An
Introduction By T. C. Galav Universal
Science-Religion. Pg 19)
" I hesitate not to pronounce the Gita a
performance of great originality, of sublimity
of conception, reasoning and diction almost
unequalled; and a single exception, amongst
all the known religions of mankind.."
(source: India Discovered - By John Keay
p- 25).
Ralph Waldo Emerson, (1803-1882)
author, essayist, lecturer, philosopher,
Unitarian minister said this about the
Gita:
" I owed a magnificent day to the
Bhagavad-Gita. It was as if an
empire spoke to us, nothing small
or unworthy, but large, serene,
consistent, the voice of an old
intelligence which in another age
and climate had pondered and
thus disposed of the same
questions which exercise us."
Aldous Huxley (1894-1963) the English novelist and
essayist, born into a family that included some of the
most distinguished members of the English ruling class,
says that the Gita is for the whole world. He is one of
those who enriched the West greatly with the wisdom of
the East.
"The Bhagavad-Gita is the most systematic
statement of spiritual evolution of endowing
value to mankind. The Gita is one of the clearest
and most comprehensive summaries of the
spiritual thoughts ever to have been made
Hence Huxley thought its enduring value, not only
for Indians, but for all mankind."
(source: Philosophy of Hinduism - An
Introduction By T. C. Galav Universal ScienceReligion. Pg 65).
This is what Gandhi wrote about the
Bhagavad Gita:
"The Geeta is the universal mother. I find a
solace in the Bhagavadgeeta that I miss even in
the Sermon on the Mount. When disappointment
stares me in the face and all alone I see not one
ray of light, I go back to the Bhagavad Gita. I
find a verse here and a verse there , and I
immediately begin to smile in the midst of
overwhelming tragedies - and my life has been
full of external tragedies - and if they have left
no visible or indelible scar on me, I owe it all to
the teaching of Bhagavadgeeta."
About the Bhagawad-Gita, Gandhi, says: “Today
the Gita is not only my Bible or my Koran, it is
more than that—it is my mother... When I am in
difficulty or distress I seek refuge in her bosom.”
(source: Harijan 24-8-1934).
The Gita teaches, unlike the Upanishadic outlook on life
which is individualistic
1. It teaches that humanity has a duty to promote the
stability, solidarity, and progress of society
2. There is an emphasis on one doing one’s dharma
3. It also emphasizes, however, that all classes are
essentially equal
4. Some would say the greatest aspect of the Gita is
that it synthesizes the various approaches of Indian
religious traditions
5. Some say that the Gita has several levels of
interpretation—ethical, philosophical, mystical or spiritual
The Four Paths (MARGAS)
to Salvation:
Bhakti--devotion
Karma—work
Jnana—knowledge
Raja—mental-physical
discipline
Four Stages of Life
I. Student (brahmacarin)
II. Householder (grhastha)
III. Forest Dweller (vanaprastha)
IV. World Renouncer & Wandering Ascetic
(sannyasin)
The Puranas
I. The Puranas and the Itihasas together are known as
the 5th Veda (pancamo vedah)
II. Tradition recognizes 18 main Puranas and an equal
number of subsidiary ones (upa-puranas)
III. The chief Puranas are: Brahma, Padma, Visnu,
Siva, Bhagavata, Narada, Markandeya, Agni, Bhavisya,
Brahmavivarta, Linga, Varaha, Skanda, Vamana, Karma,
Matsya, Garuda and Brahmanada
IV. Generally, the Puranas have five chief
characteristics
A. History
B. Cosmology (with symbolical
illustrations of philosophical principles
C. Secondary creation
D. Genealogy of King s
E. Histories of the solar and lunar
dynasties of gods and sages
V. Many consider the Puranas to have
been written to popularize the religion of
the Vedas
VI. Six are sattvic Puranas and glorify
Vishnu; six are rajasic Puranas and glorify
Brahma; six are Tamasic Puranas and
glorify Siva
IV. The most popular is the Bhagavata-purana
A. It is a chronicle of the various incarnations
of the Bhavagan, or Visnu
B. Visnu is said to have descended
(avatarana) nine times and it is prediced
that he will come again at the end of the
Kali Age
C. The ten incarnations are: Matsya the Fish, Kurma the
Tortoise, Varaha the Boar, Narasimha the Man-lion, Vamana
the Dwarf, Parasurama the destroyer of the Ksatriya race,
Ramacandra the son of Dasaratha and consort of Sita, who
put an end to Ravana (10 headed asura), Krishna the Lord
of the Gopis and teacher of the Gita and Buddha, the
Prince-ascetic of Buddhism
The Incarnations of Vishnu
Blake Nolingberg
Connie Recinto
Robert Mun
Karen Cheng
Nhu Banh
Sharon Chang
Introduction
A. Who is Vishnu
1)
Vishnu is a minor Vedic* god that rose to
prominence in the Puranic period
2)
He is called "The Preserver" diety. (Vish in
Sanskrit means preserve)
3)
Vishnu re-incarnates himself to save the
world from darkness or restore balance
between good and evil.
Introduction (cont’d)
B. What is an Avatar
1) An avatar is an earthly being that God
has "descended"in to.
2) Avatara is the Sanskrit word for descend.
Matsya
(The Fish)
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Asura hayagrvia stole the four
Vedas from Brahma
Four-Vedas-the Holy books
from the mouth of the
Supreme-Deity
Pralaya-when the Universe will
be reabsorbed in Brahma's
divine sleep
Rishi (Sage) Satyavrata- the
manu- the first parents for each
cycle.
Matsya (cont’d)
Kurma
(The Tortoise)

Vishnu in this form offers
his back as the pivot on
which rests Mt. Mandara,
while the gods and
demons churn with its
various valuable objects
from the ocean milk.
Varaha
(The Wild Boar)
Hiranyaksha, after receiving a
boon of immortality from
Brahma, dragged the earth to
to the bottom of the sea.
Vishnu assumed the form of the
boar and defeated the demon.
Vishnu balanced the earth on the
horn above his snout and
brought the earth back to
safety.
Varaha (cont’d)
Narasimha
(The Man Lion)

The fourth
incarnation of Lord
Vishnu, is half-lion,
half-human in order
to alleviate the
sufferings of
devotees.
Narasimha (cont’d)
Vamana
(The Dwarf)

The first human form
that Vishnu takes in his
cycle. Lord Vishnu
incarnates himself as a
dwarf, symbolizing the
underdeveloped stage
of mankind.
Vamana (cont’d)
Parashurama
(The Man with Axe)
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He is the sixth incarnation of
Vishnu at the close of
SATYAYUS (The 1st millennium
of Hindu Mythology calculusKAPAL)
He carried the axe on his
shoulder and traversed the
earth twenty-one times,
chopped off all the arrogant
Kshatriya, wiping out the entire
royalty.
The New World had been
Parashurama (cont’d)
Rama (The Perfect Human)


Another avatar of
Vishnu. Rama is the
hero of the epic story
Ramayana
Qualities of Rama
Honor
Courage
Valor
Model of Manliness
Rama (cont’d)
Krishna
(The Divine Statesman)
He is the author of
one of the most
sacred books of the
Hindus.
 The three Noble
Paths:

Yoga (knowledge):
Yoking mind and body to
achieve perfect unity
beyond the limits of
thought and language
1.
Krishna (cont’d)
2.Dharma
(righteousness): religious
duties and custom
3.Bhakti (devotion): Love
to a personal God and
complete surrender to
Him.
Balarama & Buddha

The 8th/9th incarnation differs
between two incarnations in
three traditions.
1) The first tradition holds that
Krishna's older brother
Balarama is Vishnu's 8th
incarnation.
2) The second tradition holds
that Buddha was the 9th
incarnation to save Hinduism
from corruption.
Balarama & Buddha (cont’d)
3) The third tradition holds that the
Buddha was the 9th incarnation and
founded a false religion to purify
Hinduism of heretics. This account is
found in the Vishnu Purana but doesn't
mention Buddha by name as
Mayamoha (the harmful deluder).
This tradition affirms that Balarama was
an incarnation of Shesh Nag,Vishnu's
snake that he often is pictured reclining
on.
Kalki
(The Man on Horse)

In this form Vishnu will
descend when the
world is wholly
depraved, destroy
utterly the wicked, and
restore the happy
conditions of the Age
of Virtue.
Kalki (cont’d)
D. Purpose of Kuma was to enable to
world to recoer precious things that were
lost in the deluge
E. Purpopse of Varaha was to recsue from
the waters, the earth which had been
dragged down by a demon named
Hiranyaksha
F. Purpose of Narashima, half-man and
half lion, was to free the world from
oppression of Hiranyakasipu, a demon the
father of Bhakta Prahlada
G. Purpose of Rama was to destroy the
wicked Ravana
H. Purpose of Krishna was to destroy
Kamsa and other demons and to deliver
the message of the Gita
I. Object of Buddha was to prohibit
animal sacrifice and teach piety
J. Object of Kali is the destruction of the
wicked and the reestablishment of virtue
Bhavishva Purana
1. Written in 115 CE
2. Records an encounter of King shalivahana with a
religious figure from the West
3. The following is from verses 16-33 of the third
khanda of the Pratisarga parvan of the Bhavishya
Mahapurana
“The king asked the holy man who he was. The other
replied: ‘I am called a son of God, born of a virgin.
Minister of the non-believers, relentless in search of the
truth.’ The king then asked him, ‘What is your religion?’
The other replied, ‘O great king, I come from a foreign
country, where there is no longer truth and where evil
knows no bounds. In the land of the non-believers, I
appeared as the Messiah. But the demon Ihamasi of the
barbarians (daysu) manifested herself in a terrible form;
I was delivered unto her in the manner of the nonbelievers and ended in Ihamsasi’s realm.
“’O king, lend your ear to the religion the I brought unto
the non-believers; after the purification of the essence
and the impure body and after seeking refuge in the
prayers of the Naigama, man will pray to the eternal.
Through justice, truth, meditation, and unity of spirit,
man will find his way to Isa in the center of light. God,
as firm as the sun, will finally united the spirit of all
wandering beings in himself. Thus, O King, Ihamasi will
be destroyed; and the blissful image of Isa, the giver of
happiness, will remain forever in the heart; and I was
called Isa-Masih.’ After the king heard these words he
took the teacher of the non-believers and sent him to
their pitiless land.”
The Agamas
I. They are theological treatises and manuals of worship
II. Divided into the three main sects of
A. Saivas recognize 28, chief of which is Kamika
B. Sakta recognizes 77 Agamas (known also as the
Tantras)
C. Vaisnavas consider the Pancaratra Agamas to be
authoritative
III. According to George Feurestein,
(Moksha Journal) Tantrism includes the
following features:
A. Initiation and spiritual discipleship
with a qualified adept (guru)
B. The belief that mind and matter are
manifestations of a higher, spiritual
Reality, which is our ever-present true
nature
C. The belief that the spiritual Reality (nirvana) is
not something distinct from the empirical real of
existence (samsara) but inherent in it
D. The belief in the possibility of achieving
permanent enlightenment or liberation while still in
the embodied state
E. The goal of achieving liberation/enlightenment
by means of awakening the spiritual power—called
kundalini shakti—dormant in the human bodymind
E. The belief that we are born many times and
that this cycle is interrupted only at the moment
of enlightenment, and that the chain of return is
determined by the moral quality of our lives
through the action of karma
F. The assumption that we live at present in the
Dark Age (kali-yuga) and that therefore we
should avail ourselves of every possible act on
the spiritual path, including practices that are
deemed detrimental by conventional morality
I. The belief in the magical efficacy of
ritual, based on the metaphysical notion
that the microcosm (i.e., the human
being) is a faithful reflection of the
macrocosm (i.e., the universe)
J. The recognition that spiritual
illumination is accompanied by, or creates
access to, a wide array of psychic powers,
and a certain interest in the exploitation of
these powers both for spiritual and
material purposes
K. The understanding that sexual energy
is an important reservoir of energy that
should be used wisely to boost the
spiritual process rather than block it
through orgasmic release
L. An emphasis on first-hand experience
and bold experimentation rather than
reliance on derived knowledge
M. Tantrism, then is an occult or esoteric
tradition of arcane disciplines. This means
that its teachings are secret or “hidden”
and cannot, or at least should not,
bedivulged to the uninitiated. Indeed,
traditionally, the Tantric initiates were
sworn to secrecy.
N. The Kularnava-Tantra reads:
You must keep this a secret and not
impact it to anyone but a devotee and
disciple; otherwise it will case their fall.
Five M’s
I. Madya—Wine (literal)
Cocoanut Water (substitutional)
Intoxicating knowledge of God attained
by Yoga, by which one becomes
senseless of the outer world (symbolic)
II. Mamsa—Meat (literal)
Garlic, ginger, salt, seasamum , wheat,
beans (substitutional)
Consignment of all things to mam, Me
(symbolic)
III. Matsya—Fish (literal)
Red radish, brinja, etc. (substitutional)
Sense of mine-ness, mat-sya,
indentification with oneself as a result of
which pleasure and pain in the universe
are shared (symbolic)
IV. Mudra—Parched cereal (literal)
Rice, paddy, etc. (substitutional)
Relinquishing association with evil
(symbolic)
V. Maithuna—union with woman (literal)
Offering of flowers with appropriate
gesture of union (substitutional)
Union of Kundalini with the Siva-Sakti in
the Sahasrara (symbolic)
Left-handed Worship preparation
I. The preparations consist of various
processes of symbolic purification
II. The actual taking of the ingredients is
accompanied by meditation on the
vicarious nature of the observances—i.e.,
that it is not the sadhaka as a ephemeral
individual who takes them but that they
are being fed to the goddess residing in
his body as the Kundalini (the coiled-up
body of the Kaula or Tantric in-group)
III. Along with the acts of taking the four
M’s, the sadhaka also silent Japa
(repetition) of his own bija, i.e., the secret
bija given to him by his guru which is the
mantra of his choice
IV. Let us always bear in mind that
whatever the manner in which ritual is
conducted in India. . . . The postulated
target is never to be sought in the
enjoyment of the used materials; it is not
any time a hedonistic motive that directs
the ritualistic acts
V. The sadhaka should then perform mental
worship of the basic Sakti (adhara-Sakti), whose
microcosmic aspect is the kundalini coiled up in
the base-centre (muladhara) of the yogic body,
injecting her image into the centre of the
triangular mandala on the couch, with these
(unpronounced, mentally repeated) words “Om
Hrim worship to the basic Sakti (and to the)
lotus seat (i.e., the couch)
The Six Darsanas
The principle tenets are stated in the form
of sutras—or short aphorisms—they are
intended to be as short as possible and
free from doubt
Nyaya—logical realism
I. Basic text is the Nyaya Sutra, written about 400 BCE
by Gautama
II. Emphasizes logic—it is analytical philosophy
III. Distinctive character is its critical examinations of the
objects of knowledge by means of the canons of logical
proof—systems of Hindu thought generally accept
fundamental Nyaya logic
IV. Nyaya literally means “that by which the mind is led
to a conclusion”
A. The means of valid knowledge are called
pramanas
B. In the Nyaya system there are four pramanas
1. Intuition (pratyaksa)—the most
important, originally meant sense-perception
but came to include immediate apprehension,
whether through senses or not. Mind is a
prerequisite of perception—it is able to
mediate between the self and the senses
2. Inference (anunana)—knowledge which
follows other knowledge—also a knowledge
which is preceded by perception. Includes both deductive
and inductive inference
The five-membered syllogism
(1) pratijna—the thesis to be
established—the hill has fire
(2) hetu—gives the reason on
which the thesis is based—
because it has smoke
(3) udaharana—substantiates
the reason by citing an
example—whatever has smoke
has fire
(4) upanaya—shows a
correlation between the
example and
present instant—
this hill has smoke which is
invariably concomitant with fire
(5) nigamana—drawing the conclusion
as a settled fact—therefore this hill has
fire
3. Comparison or analogy (upamana)—
knowledge gained of an object from its
similarity to others
4. Verbal knowledge or testimony (sabda)—refers
to authority. Here are discussed words, their
meanings, and whether they refer to
individual, forms, or genus. Testimony may be
of the Veda or of secular speech
Vaisesika—atomistic pluralism
I. Basic text is Vaiseki-sutra written by Kanada, 4th or
3rd century BCE
II. It is a system of physics and metaphysics, adopts a
sixfold classification of the objects of experience,
substance, quality, activity, generality, particularity,
and inherence—later a 7th was added, nonexistence
III.Reality consists of substances possessed of qualities
IV. Existence of soul is inferred from the fact that
consciousness cannot be a property of the body, the
sense organs or the mind
V. It accepts the atomic views—things are composed of
invisible, eternal atoms, which are incapable of division—
there are four kinds of atoms—earth, water, light, air
VI. The system is regarded as non-theistic
VII. Though the soul is all-pervading, its life of knowing,
feeling, and willing resides only where the body is
Samkhya--dualism
I. One of the oldest systems of thought in India;
concepts are found in the Mahabharata
II. Developer is Kapila, 7th century BCE
III. Noted for its theory of evolution and for the
reduction of numerous categories to two
fundamental catergories—purusha and prakriti
A. All experience is based on the duality of a
knowing subject—purusha—and the known
object—prikriti
B. Prakriti is basis of all objective existence—it is
the world of becoming, pure potentiality
1. It is not being or force, it is a state of
tension of the 3 gunas—sattva, rajas and
tamas
a. Sattva is potential consciousness
b . Rajas is the source of activity
c. Tamas is the source of that which
resists activity
d. The three produce pleasure, pain,
and indifference respectively
2. When the three elements are held in
equipose there is no action
3. Where there is a disturbance, the process
of evolution begins
a. From the sattva aspects arise the
mind (manas), the five organs of
perception, and the five organs or
instruments of action
b. From its tamas aspect arise the five
final or subtle elements
c. Its rajas aspect supplies the energy
for both of these developments
C. Creation is the unfolding of the different effects
from the original prakriti and destruction is the
dissolution of them into the original prakriti
D. Salvation in the Sankhya system is through
Yoga—thus the system of Sankhya-Yoga
Yoga—mind control
I. Patanjali wrote the Yoga-sutra, 5th century CE
II. Yoga is the discrimination between subject and
object, purusha and prakriti, which means the
establishment of the self in its purity
III. It is a methodical effort to attain perfection, through
the control of the different elements of human nature,
physical and psychical
IV. Yoga accepts the Sankhya psychology and
metaphysics
V . It is more theistic than Sankhya
VI. The ego is different from the self and is dependent
on the experience of the world
VIII. The life of the ego is restless and unsatisfied,
being subject as it is to the five afflictions:
A. Ignorance of the mistaking of the non-eternal for
the eternal
B. The erroneous identification of oneself with the
instruments of body and mind
C. Attachment to pleasant things
D. Hatred of unpleasant things
E. The instinctive love of life and the dread of death
VIII. The special features of Yoga is its practical
discipline by which the suppression of mental states is
brought about through the practice of spiritual exercises
and the conquest of desire
IX. It gives the 8-fold method of abstention,
observation, posture, breath-control, withdrawal of the
senses, fixed attention, contemplation, and
concentration
X. Ethical living is the preparing ground for Yoga
Purva Mimamsa
I. First systematic work is by Jaimini who wrote the
Mimamsa-sutra, c. 400 BCE
II. Can be seen as a kind of “back to the Vedas”
movement
III. Its central problem is the investigation of
dharma, duty, as it is taught in the Vedas
IV. The Vedas are said to be eternally valid—they are
not the work of God, they are uncreated, and the
seers apprehend and transmit them
V. Acts are stressed with a view to their results
VI. Between an act and its result there is a necessary
connection—an act performed today may achieve its
result in some later date, and in the meantime the result
is in the form of an unseen force
VII. The system has no need for a deity
Vedanta
I. The Vedanta-sutra written by Badarayhana, 400 BCE
II. It deals with the final aim, or end, of the Vedas—thus
Vedanta
III. In the 555 sutras an attempt is made to systematize
the teaching of the Upanishads
IV. Those sutras which consists of 2 or 3 words each
cannot be understood without a commentary—the chief
commentators are Shankara, Ramanuja, and Madhva
Advaita Vedanta
nondualism
I. One writer notes that “the non-duality of
Brahman, the non-reality of the world, and the nondifference of the soul from Brahman—these
constitute the teaching of Advaita.”
II. Shankara, 8th century CE, claims he is merely
expounding what is contained in the Vedas
III. In the introduction to his commentary he asks
whether there is anything in experience which may
be regarded as foundational
IV. Our senses may deceive us; our memory be an
illusion
V. The forms of the world may be pure fancy; the
objects of knowledge may be open to doubt, but
the doubter himself cannot be doubted
VI. “All means of knowledge exist only as
dependent on self-experience and since each
experience is its own proof there is no necessity for
proving the existence of self. The self, then, is
Atman, it is existence, knowledge, and bliss. It is
universal and infinite.”
VII. The object world is dependent. It is changing
but is not a mental fiction.
VIII. We perceive objects; we do not invent the
corresponding ideas
IX. The world perceived is as real as the individual
perceiver
X. He denies that the world is non-existent or void—but
it is not ultimate reality
XI. Our ignorance is born of a confusion of the
transcendental subject Atman with empirical existence,
Anatman
X. Brahman is different from the space-time world we
live in
A. It is the non-empirical, the non-objective, the
wholly other
B. It is the highest being
XI. Atman is the same as Brahman, the essence of the
subject
XII. The empirical world cannot exist by itself, it is
wholly dependent on Brahman, but the changes of the
empirical order do not affect the integrity of Brahman
XIII. To remove ignorance is to realize truth—we reach
wisdom when error is conquered
XIV. By the practice of ethical values and by the pursuit
of devotion and knowledge we reach the goal of self-
realization—moska
XV. On the attainment of freedom nothing happens to
the world, only our view of it changes
XVI. Moska is the dissolution of the world by the
replacement of a false outlook (avidya) by the right
outlook, wisdom (vidya).
Visistadvaita
Qualified non-dualism
I. Ramanuja, 11th century CE
II. He emphasizes three ultimate realities: God
(Isvara), soul (Cit), and matter (Acit)
III. All things are real but the world and the selves
depend on God
IV. There is a continued individual existence of the
released selves
V. While Brahman is eternally free from all
imperfections, matter is unconscious and the individual
selves are subject to ignorance and suffering prior to
release
VI. God, selves, and the world form a unity
VII. Brahman is the self and the controlling power of
the body, which includes the selves and the world
VIII. Apart from Brahman they are nothing
IX. The individual self and nature are essentially
different than God, although they have no existence or
purpose to serve apart from Him
X. Brahman has two forms—selves and matter
XI. Salvation is not the disappearance of the self, but its
release from limiting barriers—the self cannot be
dissolved into God—there will always be a God superior
to humanity
Dvaita
Dualism
I. Madva, 12th century CE
II. Holds that God, selves, and the world exist
permanently, but the latter two are subordinate to God
and dependent on God
III. God is endowed with a supernatural body and is
regarded as transcendent to the world as well as
immanent in it; he is the inner ruler of all selves.
IV. Everything on earth is a living organism
V. The self is not an absolute agent, since it is of limited
power and is dependent on God
VI. It is by nature blissful, though it is subject to pain
and suffering on account of its connection with a
material body due to its past karmas
VII. Salvation is the perpetuation of the individual self in
the condition of release, where the self takes delight in
adoration and worship of God
VIII. Liberation is life in heaven and not the state of
ultimate release.
Karma Yoga
The Way of Works
I. An ancient and aristocratic way—ritual and deeds
II. Important is the Code of Manu and other Dharma
Sastras
Carvaka
I. Carvaka assumed various forms of philosophical
skepticism, logical fatalism, and religious indifference
II. Origin can be traced as far back as the Rig-Veda;
mentioned in the epics, Buddha’s dialogues, and the
Bhagavad Gita
III. Main work is the Brhaspati Sutra (600 BCE)—the
whole book is not available today
IV. Doctrine is called Lokayata, for it holds that only this
world (loka) exists and that there is no “beyond”
A. There is no future life and perception is the only
source of knowledge—what is not perceived does
not exist
B. Consciousness is a material and transitory
modification of the four elements (earth, water, fire,
and air) and will disappear when these elements are
dissolved
C. The soul is only the body qualified by
intelligence—it has no existence from the body
D. The postulates of religion, God, freedom, and
immortality are illusions
E. Nature is indifferent to good and evil, and history
does not bear history to a divine providence
F. Pleasure and pain are the central facts of life
G. Virtue and vice are not absolute values but mere
social conventions
Modern &
Contemporary
Movements
Brahmo-Samaj
I. Founder was Ram Mohun Roy (1772-1833)—father of
modern India
II. Between ages of 15 and 20 he wandered through
India in search of knowledge—going as far as Tibet
III. He became successful in English administration
A. One of first Indians to edit and publish
newspaper
B . Started several secondary schools
C. Led a successful campaign sati and organized a
religious society, the Brahmo-Samaj, or society of the
worshippers of God, which was to exercise a deep
influence on the social and religious life of modern India
IV. He was first to give serious attention to fundamental
tenents of Christianity and welcomed its humanitarian
message
V. A convert to the movement, Debendranath Tagor,
strengthened the Smaj’s corporate worship and
monotheism
VI. Keshub Chunder Sen used revivalist sermons and
Brahmo missionaries to spread a gospel which became
so close to Christianity in its content that his conversion
was thought imminent
VII. Swami Dayananda based his radical social reforms
on the authority of the Vedas
Sri Ramakrishna
(1836-1886)
Swami Vivekananda
(1863-1902)
I. Ramakrishna was a simple soul, follower of Kali
II. Became a religious seeker, tried being Christian,
Muslim, and Hindu
III. Soon he revitalized Hinduism
IV. His disciple, Vivekananda, attended the first World
Parliament of Religions in 1893 and impressed the world
with his abilities
Aurobindo Ghose
(1872-1950)
I. English educated, known for his desire to free India
II. Became a student of religion, emphasizing the
importance of Hinduism in evolving society and religion
Sarvepelli Radhkrishnan
(1888-1975)