Transcript Chapter 29

Chapter 27
The Crisis of the
Imperial Order, 19001929
Early Twentieth Century Historical Events
empty
cell
Europe and North America
Middle East
1900 1904 British-French Entente
East Asia
1900 Boxer uprising in China
1904-1905 Russo-Japanese War
1907 British-Russian Entente
1909 Young Turks overthrow
Sultan Abdul Hamid
1910 1912-1913 Balkan Wars
1912 Italy conquers Libya, last
1914 Assassination of Archduke Franz Ottoman territory in Africa
Ferdinand sparks World War 1
1915 British defeat at Gallipoli
1916 Battles of Verdun and the
1916 Arab Revolt in Arabia
Somme
1917 Balfour Declaration
1917 Russian Revolutions; United
States enters the war
1918 Armistice ends World War 1
1918-1921 Civil war in Russia
1919-1922 War between Turkey
1919 Treaty of Versailles
and Greece
1920 1923-1928 New Economic Policy in
Russia
1922 Egypt nominally
independent
1923 Mustafa Kemal proclaims
Turkey a republic
1911 Chinese revolutionaries led
by Sun Yat-sen overthrow Qing
dynasty
1915 Japan presents Twenty-One
Demands to China
1919 May Fourth Movement in
China
1927 Guomindang forces occupy
Shanghai and expel Communists
p715
Origins of the Crisis in
Europe and
the Middle East
29 | 3
The Ottoman Empire and
Balkans
• By the late nineteenth century, the oncepowerful Ottoman Empire was in decline
and losing the outlying provinces closest to
Europe.
• The Young Turks conspired to force a
constitution on the sultan, advocated
centralized rule and Turkification of
minorities, and carried out modernizing
reforms. The Turks hired a German general
to modernize Turkey’s armed forces.
29 | 4
Nationalism, Alliances, and
Military Strategy
• The three main causes of World War I were
nationalism, the system of alliances and
military plans, and Germany’s yearning to
dominate Europe. (imperialism)
29 | 5
MAIN Causes of the Great War
1) Militarism
2)Alliance systems
3)Imperialism
3) Nationalism
 Militarism-Aggressive
preparation for war
◦ Alliance systems and imperialist rivalries only
helped to fuel the arms race of the early
1900’s in Europe.
◦ Naval power was the most obvious form of
military buildup.
◦ Germany poured money into its navy in
order to challenge Britain on the open seas.
Both nations built more and better naval
vessels as a result.
◦ The size of armies grew steadily to number
in the millions. Each nation was preparing
itself for war.
Military drafts were held throughout Europe,
doubling the size of most armies.
 New weapons produced in mass quantities◦ Machine gun
◦ Improved rifles
◦ Poisonous gas
◦ Airplanes*
◦ Tanks*
 Increased railroad construction made
mobilization faster


Alliance systems
◦ Germany’s growing industrial and military power in
Europe threatened the major powers on the continent
(France, Russia, and Britain)
◦ Germany’s neighbors, France and Russia, allied
themselves in the 1890’s to surround Germany and
discourage a declaration of war or invasion by
Germany.
◦ Britain responded in part due to Germany’s growing
economic power and threatening naval capabilities.
◦ By the early 1900’s the three (Russia, France, and
Britain) had formed the Triple Entente (agreement)
(later called the Allied Powers or Allies)
◦ Germany responded by allying with AustriaHungary. (Known as Central Powers)
*Originally Italy is on this side but later they flip to
the Allies
 Imperialism-The extension of a nations power over other lands
◦ For decades, most European powers had
been engaged in an imperialist rivalry
around the globe. These rivalries
heightened tensions between the nations.
◦ Imperialist rivalries only served to
further the tensions between nations and
feed the jingoism (warlike
nationalism) of each nation.
• Nationalism was deeply rooted in
European culture, where it served to unite
individual nations while undermining large
multiethnic empires.
• Imbued with nationalism and largely
unfamiliar with the reality of large-scale
warfare, most people viewed war as a
crusade for liberty or as revenges for past
injustices.
29 | 11
• The major European countries were organized
into two alliances: the Triple Alliance
(Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Italy) and the
Triple Entente (Britain, France, and Russia).
• The military alliance system was accompanied
by inflexible mobilization plans that depended
on railroads to move troops according to
precise schedules.
• When Austria-Hungary declared war on Serbia
on July 28, 1914, the alliance system, in
combination with the rigidly scheduled
mobilization plans, meant that war was
automatic.
29 | 12
Map of Europe in 1913
p716
The Balkan problem
 Nowhere
was the tension higher in
Europe than in the Balkans.
 Complex ethnic divisions and rivalries
made this territory a hotbed of crisis.
 On top of this, in the years before WWI,
there had been a series of regional wars
in this region over territories and
resources.
The Balkans in 1914
Annexed to
Austria in 1908
“The Powder Keg of Europe”
 On
June 28, 1914, the Archduke of
Austria-Hungary, Franz Ferdinand
visited the Bosnian capital of Sarajevo.
 Bosnia had been taken from Serbia by
Austria-Hungary years earlier.
 A Serbian nationalist, Gavriel Princip,
assassinated the Archduke.
◦ The “spark” that ignites WWI
Alliance System takes over
 Austria-Hungary
responded by declaring
war on Serbia.
 Serbia was backed by Russia (defender of
the Slavic race), so Russia declared war on
Austria-Hungary.
 Germany backed Austria-Hungary, so it
declared war on Russia.
 Britain and France then declared war on
Germany and Austria-Hungary
Alliance System
The “Great War” and the Russian
Revolutions, 1914–1918
29 | 20
“We’ll be
home by
Christmas!”
29 | 21
Stalemate, 1914–1917
• The nations of Europe entered the war in
high spirits, confident of victory. German
victory at first seemed assured, but as the
German advance faltered in September,
both sides spread out until they formed an
unbroken line of trenches (the Western
Front) from the North Sea to Switzerland.
• The generals on each side tried for four
years to take enemy positions by ordering
their troops to charge across the open
fields, only to have them cut down by
machine-gun fire.
29 | 22
The Western Front in World War I
p712
The Schlieffen Plan
Germany found itself at a distinct disadvantage
once war was declared, having to fight a twofront war.
 As a result Germany devised a plan to launch a
quick and massive attack to the west (towards
France) and then turn back towards the more
backward less threatening Russia in the east.
 This plan was spearheaded by General Alfred
von Schlieffen, hence the name.

The Schlieffen Plan
The World at War
Initially, the Schlieffen plan worked brilliantly.
Germany swept through Belgium rather quickly
and found itself in northern France pushing
towards Paris.
 French forces retreated to Paris to regroup and
defend their capital. Just outside Paris the two
sides squared off at the Marne River in what
came to be called the Battle of the Marne.
 French forces heroically halted the German
advance and saved their capital and nation from
German occupation.

Trench Warfare
Trench Warfare Continued…
“The Front is a cage in which we must await
fearfully whatever may happen.”
-German soldier, later novelist
“Neither [side] had won or could win the war
The war had won and would go on winning.”
-British war poet
War on the Eastern Front
Though war in the East was just as horrific,
the results were much different.
 German armies were able to make large
gains against the poorly trained and ineptly
led Russian forces.
 The highest levels of casualty of any of the
nations involved in the war and the poor
leadership of the Russian state led to
outright mutinies and revolts that toppled
the tsarist regime in 1917.

• For four years, the war was inconclusive
on both land and at sea.
• While military thinking remained largely
unchanged, there were significant
developments in military technology, as the
war saw the use of submarines, poison
gas, tanks and airplanes.
29 | 30
Effects of WWI Weaponry


On top of having
devastating killing power,
the weapons of WWI
were best used to hold
defensive positions rather
than lead charges or
offensive maneuvers.
As a result, very little
ground was gained by
either side between 1914
and 1917.
•
•
•
•
•
•
By 1915 airplanes had
appeared on the battle
from for the first time!
First used to spot enemy
position
Began attacking ground
targets
Pilots first shot at each
other with pistols then
mounted machine guns
Germans used zeppelins
to bomb London and
eastern England
But… zeppelins filled
with hydrogen explode
when hit by guns…
The Home Front and
the War Economy
• The material demands of trench warfare
led governments to impose stringent
controls over all aspects of their
economies.
• Rationing and the recruitment of Africans,
Indians, Chinese, and women into the
European labor force transformed civilian
life and gave women especially a taste of
personal and financial independence.
29 | 33
Direct Control from Governments

As war continued, governments took more
and more control over areas of both public
and private life:
◦ Industrial sectors were taken over by gov’t.
Factories were told what to produce and railroads
administered by the state.
◦ Massive censorship took place (Sedition Acts)
newspapers and even letters from soldiers
◦ Propaganda departments were created to stir
public support and opinion.
- As a result, WWI became the first total war
in human history.
Developments for women

New work opportunities
in factories during war
◦ Including heavy industry
and munitions
Higher wages
 More confidence
 Nurses on the frontlines
 Social changes:

◦ Rising hemlines
◦ Able to smoke in public
◦ Unchaperoned dating

Suffrage!
Women in World War I
p717
• German civilians paid an especially high
price for the war because the British
naval blockade cut off access to essential
food imports.
• British and French forces overran
Germany’s African colonies (except for
Tanganyika). In all of their African
colonies, Europeans requisitioned food,
imposed heavy taxes, forced Africans to
grow export crops and sell them at low
prices, and recruited African men to serve
as soldiers and as porters.
29 | 38
The First World War in
Europe
Map 28.2 p718
• The United States grew rich during the
war by selling goods to Britain and
France. When the United States entered
the war in 1917, businesses engaged in
war production made tremendous profits.
29 | 40
Why did the U.S. join WWI?
Tried to remain neutral, although making lots
of money on the war
 The majority of Americans were pro-British
partly due to their success with propaganda &
partly due to economic ties
 German use of submarines (U-boats)

◦ Sinking of the Lusitania 1915 (100 Americans
onboard) Germans agreed not to use them-they
lied. Becomes a conflict again later.

U.S. joins the war in 1917
The Ottoman Empire at War
• The Turks signed a secret alliance with
Germany in 1914.
• Turkey engaged in unsuccessful
campaigns against Russia, deported the
Armenians (causing the deaths of
hundreds of thousands), and closed the
Dardanelles Straits.
29 | 42
• When they failed to open the Dardanelles
Straits by force, the British tried to subvert
the Ottoman Empire from within by
promising emir Hussein ibn Ali of Mecca a
kingdom of his own if he would lead a revolt
against the Turks, which he did in 1916.
• In the Balfour Declaration of 1917, the
British suggested to the Zionist leader
Chaim Wiezman that they would “view with
favor” the establishment of a Jewish
national homeland in Palestine.
• Palestine (seen as the ancient homeland of the
Jews) was currently occupied by 80% Muslims…
29 | 43
Double Revolution in Russia
• By late 1916, the large but incompetently
led and poorly equipped Russian army
had experienced numerous defeats and
had run out of ammunition and other
essential supplies.
• The civilian economy was in a state of
collapse, and the cities faced shortages
of fuel and food in the winter of 1916–
1917.
29 | 44
• In March 1917 (February by the old Russian
calendar), the tsar was overthrown and
replaced by a Provisional Government led by
Alexander Kerensky.
• On November 6, 1917
(October 24 in the
Russian calendar)
Vladimir Lenin’s
Bolsheviks staged an
uprising in Petrograd and
overthrew the Provisional
Government. (Also took
over winter palace and
slaughtered entire royal
family.)
29 | 45
The End of the War in Western
Europe, 1917-1918
• German resumption of unrestricted
submarine warfare brought the United
States into the war in April 1917.
• The Germans were able to break through
and push within 40 miles of Paris. The
arrival of U.S. forces allowed the Allies to
counterattack in August 1918.
• The German soldiers retreated; an
armistice was signed on November 11.
29 | 46
Peace and Dislocation in
Europe, 1919–1929
29 | 47
The Impact of the War
• Between 9 and 10 million people died in
the war.
• The war also created millions of refugees,
many of whom fled to France and to the
United States, where the influx of
immigrants prompted the U.S. Congress to
pass immigration laws that closed the
doors to eastern and southern Europeans.
29 | 48
• One byproduct of the war was the
influenza epidemic of 1918–1919, which
started among soldiers headed for the
Western Front and spread around the
world, killing some 20 million people
(twice as many than those that died in the
war).
• The war also caused serious damage to
the environment, especially along the
Western Front in France and Belgium.
29 | 49
Problems in Europe after WWI
 10
million dead, 20 million
wounded
 Land ruined (farms)
 Cities demolished (industry)
 Germany had a weak new
government
 Influenza pandemic
This does not include the issues brought on by the
Treaty of Versailles
The Peace Treaties
• Three men dominated the Paris Peace
Conference: U.S. President Wilson, British
Prime Minister David Lloyd George, and
French Premier Georges Clemenceau.
• Because the three men had conflicting goals,
the Treaty of Versailles turned out to be a
series of unsatisfying compromises that
humiliated Germany but left it largely intact
and potentially the most powerful nation in
Europe.
• The Austro-Hungarian Empire fell apart. New
countries were created in the lands lost by
Russia, Germany, and Austria-Hungary.
29 | 51
The Treaty of Versailles
Wilson wanted to use his Fourteen Points plan and
create the League of Nations, Clemenceau and
George wanted to punish Germany… Wilson was
outvoted…
Germany had to
• pay reparations for the war
• return Alsace and Lorraine to France
• accept the war guilt clause
• make a demilitarized zone around its borders
• And could have no navy or air force
The League of Nations was created but the U.S.
Senate refused to join, making this group weak
29 | 52
from the beginning.
Territorial Changes in
Europe After World War I
Map 28.3 p723
Russian Civil War and the New
Economic Policy
• In Russia, Allied intervention and civil war
extended the fighting for another three
years beyond the end of World War I.
• By 1921, the Communists had defeated
most of their enemies, and in 1922, the
Soviet republic of Ukraine and Russia
merged to create the Union of Soviet
Socialist Republics.
• The USSR or Soviet Union
29 | 54
• Years of warfare, revolution, and
mismanagement had ruined the Russian
economy.
• Beginning in 1921, Lenin’s New Economic
Policy helped to restore production by
relaxing government controls and allowing
a return of market economics.
• This policy was regarded as a temporary
measure that would be superseded as the
Soviet Union built a modern, socialist,
industrial economy by extracting
resources from the peasants to pay for
industrialization.
29 | 55
• When Lenin died in January 1924, his
associates struggled for power; the two main
contenders were Leon Trotsky and Joseph
Stalin.
• Stalin filled the bureaucracy with his
supporters, expelled Trotsky, and forced him
to flee the country. Began Five-Year Plans
to build industry at unprecedented speed.
29 | 56
An Ephemeral Peace
• The 1920s were a decade of
dissatisfaction among people whose hopes
had been raised by the rhetoric of war and
dashed by its outcome.
• In 1923, French occupation of the Ruhr
and severe inflation brought Germany to
the brink of civil war. Fiscal reform, the
creation of an American-led system to
facilitate payment of war debts, and
French withdrawal from the Ruhr marked
the beginning of a period of peace and
economic growth beginning in 1924.
29 | 57
• Germany borrowed money from money
from New York to pay France and Britain
and they in turn used that money to repay
their loans from the U.S.
• The industrial nations of Europe began
rebuilding.
29 | 58
China and Japan:
Contrasting Destinies
29 | 59
Social and Economic Change
• In the first decades of the twentieth
century, China was plagued by rapid
population growth; an increasingly
unfavorable ratio of population to arable
land; avaricious landlords and tax
collectors; and frequent, devastating floods
of the Yellow River.
• Above the peasantry, Chinese society was
divided among many groups: landowners,
wealthy merchants, and foreigners, whose
luxurious lives aroused the resentment of
educated, young, urban Chinese.
29 | 60
• Japan had few natural resources and very
little arable land. While not troubled by
floods, Japan was subject to other natural
calamities.
• In Japan, industrialization and economic
growth aggravated social tensions between
westernized urbanites and traditionalists,
and between the immensely wealthy
zaibatsu and the poor farmers, who still
comprised half the population.
• Japanese prosperity depended on foreign
trade. This made Japan much more
vulnerable than China to swings in the world
economy.
29 | 61
Revolution and War,
1900–1918
China’s defeat and humiliation at the hands
of an international force in the Boxer affair
of 1900 led many Chinese students to
conclude that China needed a revolution to
overthrow the Qing and modernize the
country.
29 | 62
• When a regional army unit mutinied in
1911, Sun Yat-sen’s Revolutionary Alliance
formed an assembly and elected Sun as
president of China, but to avoid a civil war,
the presidency was turned over to the
powerful general Yuan Shikai, who
rejected democracy and ruled as an
autocrat.
• Sun turned his attention thereafter to
organizing his followers as the
Guomindang.
29 | 63
• The Japanese joined the Allied side in
World War I and benefited from an
economic boom as demand for their
products rose.
• Japan used the war as an opportunity to
conquer the German colonies in the
Northern Pacific and on the Chinese
coast and to further extend Japanese
influence in China by forcing the Chinese
government to accede to many of the
conditions presented in a document
called the Twenty-One Demands.
29 | 64
Chinese Warlords and the
Guomindang, 1919–1929
• At the Paris Peace Conference, the great
powers allowed Japan to retain control
over seized German enclaves in China,
sparking protests in Beijing (May 4, 1919)
and in many other parts of China. China’s
regional generals—the warlords—
supported their armies through plunder
and arbitrary taxation so that China grew
poorer while only the treaty ports
prospered.
29 | 65
• Sun Yat-sen tried to make a comeback in
Canton in the 1920s by reorganizing his
Guomindang party along Leninist lines and by
welcoming members of the newly created
Chinese Communist Party.
• Sun’s successor Chiang Kai-shek crushed the
regional warlords in 1927.
• Chiang then split with and decimated the
Communist Party and embarked on an
ambitious plan of top-down industrial
modernization.
• However, Chiang’s government was staffed by
corrupt opportunists, not by competent
administrators: China remained mired in
29 | 66
poverty.
The New Middle East
29 | 67
The Mandate System
• Instead of being given their independence,
the former German colonies and Ottoman
territories were given to the great powers
as mandates. Class C Mandates were
ruled as colonies, while Class B Mandates
were to be ruled under League of Nations
supervision.
29 | 68
• The Arab-speaking territories of the former
Ottoman Empire were Class A Mandates,
a category that was defined to lead the
Arabs to believe that they had been
promised independence. In practice,
Britain took control of Palestine, Iraq, and
Trans-Jordan, while France took Syria and
Lebanon as its mandates.
29 | 69
The Rise of Modern Turkey
• At the end of the war, the Ottoman
Empire was at the point of collapse, with
French, British, Italian, and Greek forces
occupying Constantinople and parts of
Anatolia. In 1919 Mustafa Kemal formed
a nationalist government and
reconquered Anatolia and the area
around Constantinople in 1922.
29 | 70
• Kemal was an outspoken modernizer who
declared Turkey to be a secular republic;
introduced European laws; replaced the
Arabic alphabet with the Latin alphabet;
and attempted to westernize the Turkish
family, the roles of women, and even
Turkish clothing and headgear.
• His reforms spread quickly in the urban
areas, but they encountered strong
resistance in the countryside, where
Islamic traditions remained strong.
29 | 71
Arab Lands and the Question
of Palestine
• Among the Arab people, the thinly
disguised colonialism of the Mandate
System set off protests and rebellions. At
the same time, Middle Eastern society
underwent significant changes: the
population grew by 50 percent from 1914
to 1939, major cities doubled in size, and
the urban merchant class adopted
western ideas, customs, and lifestyles.
29 | 72
• The Maghrib (Algeria, Tunisia, and
Morocco) was dominated by the French
army and by French settlers, who owned
the best lands and monopolized
government jobs and businesses. Arabs
and Berbers remained poor and suffered
from discrimination.
• The British allowed Iraq to become
independent under King Faisal (leader of
the Arab revolt) but maintained a
significant military and economic influence.
29 | 73
• France sent thousands of troops to crush
nationalist uprisings in Lebanon and Syria.
Britain declared Egypt to be independent in
1922 but retained control through its
alliance with King Farouk.
• In the Palestine Mandate, the British tried
to limit the wave of Jewish immigration that
began in 1920 but only succeeded in
alienating both Jews and Arabs.
29 | 74
The Bund in Shanghai
p726
Mustafa Kemal Atatürk
p729
Territorial Changes in the Middle East
After World War I
Map 28.4 p732
The Jewish Settlement of
Palestine
p733
British Warship Maneuvering
p734
Conclusion
Though some thought the pre-war world would reemerge in
1919, the reality was very different. There had been a
major realignment among nations. France and Britain
were economically weakened. Russia was left in civil war
and revolution. The Austro-Hungarian and Ottoman
Empires were divided into smaller, weaker nations. Japan
and the United States came out of the war in a more
strengthened position than before.
The fall of the Ottoman Empire generated hope among Turks,
Arabs, and Jewish immigrants of sovereign nation status,
but the imposition of British and French mandates thwarted
those aspirations.
29 | 80