Transcript India - Chandler Unified School District

India
2015-2016 ACADEMIC DECATHLON
SOCIAL STUDIES
Harappan Civilization
Ancient civilization which established its first cities circa 2500 B.C. in the Indus River
Valley, dominating the area until the 1500s when the Aryans, a nomadic people from the
north, invaded and conquered the area. The Harappan developed a written language
using pictographs that has not yet been deciphered. As a result, historians know
significantly less about Harappan history than other Ancient Civilizations.
Like the other two river valley civilizations, the Harappan culture developed a written language. In contrast to cuneiform and
hieroglyphics, the Harappan language has been impossible to decipher. This is because, unlike the other two languages,
linguists have not found any inscriptions that are bilingual. The Harappan language is found on stamps and seals made of
carved stone used for trading pottery and tools. About 400 symbols make up the language. Scientists believe the symbols,
like hieroglyphics, are used both to depict an object and also as phonetic sounds. Some signs stand alone and other seem to
be combined into words.
The Harappan cities show a remarkable uniformity in religion and culture. The housing suggests that social divisions in the
society were not great. Artifacts such as clay and wooden children’s toys suggest a relatively prosperous society that could
afford to produce nonessential goods. Few weapons of warfare have been found, suggesting that conflict was limited. The
presence of animal images on many types of artifacts suggests that animals were an important part of the culture. Animals
are seen on pottery, small statues, children’s toys, and seals used to mark trade items. The images provide archaeologists
with information about animals that existed in the region.
Closure Question #1: What reasons are suggested for the disappearance of
the Indus Valley civilization?
Around 1750 B.C., the quality of building in the Indus Valley cities declined. Gradually,
the great cities fell into decay. The fate of the cities remained a mystery until the 1970s.
Then, satellite images of the subcontinent of India revealed evidence of shifts in
tectonic plates. The plate movement probably caused earthquakes and floods and
altered the course of the Indus River.
Some cities along the rivers apparently suffered through these disasters and survived.
Others were destroyed. The shifts may have caused another river, the Sarswati, to dry
up. Trade on this river became impossible, and cities began to die. Harappan
agriculture, too, would have been influenced by these events. It is likely that these
environmental changes prevented production of large quantities of food. Furthermore,
Harappan agriculture may have suffered as a result of soil that was exhausted by
overuse. This too, may have forced people to leave the cities in order to survive.
Other factors had an impact on the Indian subcontinent. The Aryans, a nomadic people
from north of the Hindu Kush mountains, swept into the Indus Valley around 1500 B.C.
Indian civilization would grow again under the influence of these nomads.
Indo-Europeans / Steppe
Indo-Europeans – A group of nomadic peoples who likely came from the
steppes – dry grasslands that stretched north of the Caucasus Mountains – who
migrated outward between 1700 and 1200 B.C., invading and overthrowing
ancient civilizations in Sumer and India and establishing settlements in Europe.
The Caucasus are the mountains between the Black and Caspian seas. These primarily pastoral people herded
cattle, sheep, and goats. The Indo-Europeans also tamed horses and rode into battle in light, two-wheeled chariots.
They lived in tribes that spoke forms of a language that we call Indo-European. The languages of the IndoEuropeans were the ancestors of many of the modern languages of Europe, Southwest Asia, and South Asia.
English, Spanish, Persian, and Hindi all trace their origins back to different forms of the original Indo-European
language.
Historians can tell where Indo-European tribes settled by their languages. Some Slavic speakers moved north and
west. Others, who spoke early Celtic, Germanic, and Italic languages, moved west through Europe. Speakers of
Greek and Persian went south. The Aryans, who spoke an early form of Sanskrit, located in India. No one knows why
these people left their homelands in the steppes. Whatever the reason, Indo-European nomads began to migrate
outward in all directions between 1700 and 1200 B.C.
Migrations
Movements of a people from
one region to another; The
Indo-Europeans migration
from the Caucasus Mountain
region to Asia and Europe
key to the development of
the Hittite Empire in Anatolia
and the Aryan Empire in
India.
Aryans / Vedas
Aryans – Indo-European group which invaded the Indus River Valley in India circa
2000 B.C. The Aryans are responsible for establishing a Caste System in India and
their sacred literature, the Vedas, served as a key source for the establishment of
India’s most dominant religion, Hinduism.
The Aryan homeland was probably somewhere between the Caspian and Aral seas, though some scholars believe that
the Aryans originated in India. There is no archaeological evidence to support either claim. Though they left almost no
archaeological record, their sacred literature, the Vedas, left a picture of Aryan life. The Vedas are four collections of
prayers, magical spells, and instructions for performing rituals. The most important of the collections is the Rig Veda. The
Rig Veda contains 1,028 hymns to Aryan gods. For many years, no written form of the Vedas existed. Instead, elders of
one generation passed on this tradition orally to the next generation.
The Aryans fought their enemies, a people they called dasas. The Aryans differed from the dasas in
many ways. Aryans were taller, lighter in skin color, and spoke a different language. Unlike the earlier
inhabitants of the Indus Valley, the Aryans had not developed a writing system. They were also a
pastoral people and counted their wealth in cows. The dasa, on the other hand, were town dwellers
who lived in communities protected by walls.
Question #2: What were some of the differences between the Aryans and the
dasas in India?
Brahmins
Priests; Brahmins formed one of the four occupational groups of the Aryan people. The other
three were warriors, traders and landowners, and peasants. The group that an Aryan belonged
to determined his or her role in society.
As the Aryans settled in India, they developed closer contacts with non-Aryans. To regulate those contacts, the Aryans made class
restrictions more rigid. Shudras were laborers who did work the Aryans did not want to do. Varna, or skin color, was a distinguishing
feature of the system. So the four major groups came to be known as the varnas. Later, in the 15th century A.D., explorers from Portugal
encountered the social system and called these groups castes.
As time went on the four basic castes gradually grew more complex – with hundreds of subdivisions. Classical texts state that caste should
not be determined by birth. However, over time, some communities developed a system in which people were born into their caste. Their
caste membership determined the work they did, whom they could marry, and the people with whom they could eat. Cleanliness and
purity became all-important. Those considered the most impure because of their work (butchers, gravediggers, collectors of trash) lived
outside the caste structure. They were known as “untouchables”, since even their touch endangered the ritual purity of others.
Castes
A rigid social structure based on Aryan ideas that
governed ancient Indian civilization. Under the
system every Indian was born into a social group
based on their occupation and family line. Castes
determined what jobs people could do, who they
could marry, and what groups they could socialize
with.
The lowest caste level is known as “Untouchables”.
They were viewed as so impure that they could not
interact with any other caste and were forced to
complete the dirtiest jobs, such as collecting trash
and handling dead bodies.
Mahabharata
One of the most important epic stories in Indian civilization. The epic reflects the struggles
that took place in India as the Aryan kings worked to contain Indian lands.
One part of the Mahabharata is the Bhagavad Gita. It tells the story of a warrior prince about to go to war. His chariot driver is Krishna, a
god in human form. One of the most famous incidents in Indian literature occurs when Krishna instructs the young warrior on the proper
way to live, fight, and die:
“He who thinks this Self (eternal spirit) to be a slayer, and he who thinks this Self to be slain, are both
without discernment; the Soul slays not, neither is it slain… But if you will not wage this lawful battle, then
will you fail your own (caste) law and your honor, and incur sin… The people will name you with dishonor;
and to a man of fame dishonor is worse than death.” –Krishna, speaking in the Bhagavad Gita, a portion of
Mahabharata.
The violence and confusion of the time led many to speculate about the place of the gods and human beings in the world. As a result,
religion in India gradually changed and new religions were born.
Reincarnation / Karma
Reincarnation - Belief held by Hindus that the individual soul is reborn in a different
form after death. According to Hinduism, the cycle of reincarnation continues until
the soul achieves perfect union with Brahman.
Karma - Belief held by Hindus that the force generated by a person’s actions
determines how the person will be reborn in the next life. What people do in their
current lives will determine the circumstances of their next life; whether they will be
good or bad.
Hinduism is a collection of religious beliefs that developed slowly over a long period of time. Some aspects of the religion can
be traced back to ancient times. In a Hindu marriage today, for example, the bride and groom marry in the presence of the
sacred fire as they did centuries ago. The faithful recite daily verses from the Vedas. From time to time, scholars have tried to
organize the many popular cults, gods, and traditions into one grand system of belief. However, Hinduism – unlike religions
such as Buddhism, Christianity, or Islam – cannot be traced back to one founder with a single set of ideas.
Hindus share a common worldview. They see religion as a way of liberating the soul from the illusion, disappointments, and
mistakes of everyday existence. Sometime between 750 and 550 B.C., Hindu teachers tried to interpret and explain the
hidden meaning of the Vedic hymn. The teachers’ comments were later written down and became known as the Upanishads.
Question #2: How might the belief in reincarnation provide a form of social
control?
Janism
Founded by Mahavira, an Indian who lived between 599 and 527 B.C. Mahavira taught
that everything in the universe has a soul and should not be harmed. Followers of
Mahavira, known as Jains, avoid all forms of violence and seek out occupations that do
not require them to harm any creature, such as working in trade and commerce.
The Upanishads are written as dialogues, or discussions, between a student and a teacher. In the course of the dialogues, the two
explore how a person can achieve liberation from desires and suffering. This is described as moksha, a state of perfect
understanding of all things. The teacher distinguishes between atman, the individual soul of a living being, and Brahman, the world
soul that contains and unites all atmans. When a person understands the relationship between atman and Brahman, that person
achieves perfect understanding (moksha) and a release from life in this world. This understanding does not usually come in one
lifetime. By the process of reincarnation, an individual soul or spirit is born again and again until moksha is achieved. A soul’s karma
– good or bad deeds – follows from one reincarnation to another. Karma influences specific life circumstances, such as the caste
one is born into, one’s state of health, wealth or poverty, and so on.
The same period of speculation in the Upanishads also led to the rise of Jainism. Mahavira, the founder of Jainism, was born about
599 B.C. and died in 527 B.C. Mahavira believed that everything in the universe has a soul and so should not be harmed. Jain
monks carry the doctrine of nonviolence to its logical conclusions. They sweep ants off their path and wear gauze masks over their
mouths to avoid breathing in an insect accidentally. In keeping with this nonviolence, followers of Jainism looked for occupations
that would not harm any creature. So they have a tradition of working in trade and commerce. Because of their business activities,
Jains today make up one of the wealthiest communities in India. Jains have traditionally preached tolerance of all religions. As a
result, they have not sent out missionaries to convert followers of other faiths.
Siddhartha Gautama / Enlightenment
Siddhartha Gautama - The founder of Buddhism, also known as
Buddha, which means “Enlightened One”.
Enlightenment – Wisdom; Siddhartha’s quest for Enlightenment
through led to the foundation of Buddhism.
Born into a royal family in a small kingdom near the Himalayas, he was raised in
luxury. At age 16 he married a princess from a neighboring kingdom and had a
son. At the age of 29 ventured outside his palace for the first time and realized
that pain, illness and death came to all people. As a result he decided to spend his
life looking for a cure to suffering, giving up his royal position, wealth, and
abandoning his family.
After leaving his family, Siddhartha first chose to practice self-denial, refusing to
eat and nearly dying as a result. (see the picture) After his near death experience
he instead decided to devote himself to meditation. According to his own records,
one evening while meditating under a tree he reached enlightenment, discovering
the true meaning of life. He spent the rest of his life preaching the doctrines of
Buddhism to all who would listen.
Question #4: How did the experiences of Siddhartha Gautama influence his
religious and ethical beliefs?
Nirvana
Release from selfishness and pain; Buddha taught that anyone could achieve Nirvana
by following the eight-fold path and that achieving Nirvana was the purpose of
human existence. The concept of Nirvana is very similar, if not identical, to the Hindu
concept of Moksha.
The Buddha preached his first sermon to five companions who had accompanied him on his wanderings. That first sermon
became a landmark in the history of the world’s religion. In it, he laid out the four main ideas that he had come to
understand in his enlightenment. He called those ideas the Four Noble Truths: First, Life is filled with suffering and sorrow.
Second, the cause of all suffering is people’s selfish desire for the temporary pleasures of this world. Third, the way to end all
suffering is to end all desires. Fourth, the way to overcome such desires and attain enlightenment is to follow the Eightfold
Path, which is called the Middle Way between desires and self-denial.
The Eightfold Path, a guide to behavior, was like a staircase. For the Buddha, those who were seeking enlightenment had to
master one step at a time. Most often, this mastery would occur over many lifetimes. As in Hinduism, the Buddha accepted
the idea of reincarnation. He also accepted a cyclical, or repetitive, view of history, where the world is created and destroyed
over and over again. However, the Buddha rejected the many gods of Hinduism. Instead, he taught a way of enlightenment.
Like many of his time, the Buddha reacted against the privileges of the Brahmin priests, and thus he rejected the caste
system. The final goals of both religions – moksha for Hindus and nirvana for Buddhists – are similar. Both involve a perfect
state of understanding and a break from the chain of reincarnation.
Closure Assignment #1
1. What were some of the differences between the Aryans and the dasas in
India?
2. How might the belief in reincarnation provide a form of social control?
3. How did the experiences of Siddhartha Gautama influence his religious and
ethical beliefs?
 Mauryan Empire – Established by Chandragupta Maurya in 321 B.C., the Mauryan Empire
unified northern India following the very short rule of Alexander the Great and ruled the
region until 232 B.C. With an army of over 600,000 soldiers, Chandragupta created a
bureaucratic government which held the empire together by spying on the people and
assassinating local leaders suspected of inciting rebellion.
 Asoka – Grandson of Chandragupta Maurya, Asoka ruled over the Mauryan Empire during
its most prosperous era. Early on Asoka continued the policies of his grandfather, expanding
the empire through military conquest. However, after years of bloody warfare Asoka felt
sorrow for the suffering his armies had caused and became a convert to Buddhism and
guaranteed that he would treat his subjects fairly, humanely, and nonviolently.

Chandragupta relied on an adviser named Kautilya, a member of the priestly caste. Kautilya wrote a ruler’s handbook called the
Arthasastra. This book proposed tough-minded policies to hold an empire together. Following Kautilya’s advice, Chandragupta created
a highly bureaucratic government. He divided the empire into four provinces, each headed by a royal prince. Each province was then
divided into local districts, whose officials assessed taxes and enforced the law.
Question #1: Which Indian ruler described in this section would you rather live
under? Explain.
Acceptance of people who held different religious beliefs. During Asoka’s reign, the
Mauryan Empire allowed freedom of religion.
Around 305 B.C., Chandragupta began to battle Seleucus I, one of Alexander the Great’s generals. Seleucus had inherited part of
Alexander’s empire. He wanted to reestablish Macedonian control over the Indus Valley. After several years of fighting, however,
Chandragupta defeated Seleucus. By 303 B.C., the Mauryan Empire stretched more than 2,000 miles, uniting north India
politically for the first time. To win his wars of conquest, Chandragupta raised a vast army: 600,000 soldiers on foot, 30,000
soldiers on horseback, and 9,000 elephants. To clothe, feed, and pay these troops, the government levied high taxes. For
example, farmers had to pay up to one-half the value of their crops to the king.
Eager to stay at peace with the Indian emperor, Seleucus sent an ambassador, Megasthenes, to Chandragupta’s capital.
Megasthenes wrote glowing descriptions of Chandragupta’s palace, with its gold-covered pillars, many fountains, and imposing
thrones. The capital city featured beautiful parks and bustling markets. Asoka had extensive roads built so that he could visit the
far corners of India. He also improved conditions along these roads to make travel easier for his officials and to improve
communication in the vast empire. For example, every nine miles he had wells dug and rest houses built. This allowed travelers to
stop and refresh themselves. Such actions demonstrated Asoka’s concern for his subjects’ well-being. Noble as his policies of
toleration and nonviolence were, they failed to hold the empire together after Asoka died in 232 B.C.
Question #2: What impact did the Greeks, Persians, and Central
Asians have on Indian life between the Mauryan and
Gupta Empires?
 Asoka’s death left a power vacuum . In northern and central India, regional kings
challenged the imperial government. The kingdoms of central India, which had
only been loosely held in the Mauryan Empire, soon regained their independence.
The Andhra Dynasty arose and dominated the region for a hundred years.
 At the same time, northern India had to absorb a flood of new people fleeing
political instability in other parts of Asia. For 500 years, beginning about 185 B.C.,
wave after wave of Greeks, Persians, and Central Asians poured into northern
India. These invaders disrupted Indian society. But they also introduced new
languages and customs that added to the already rich blend of Indian culture.
 Tamil – Language spoken in three kingdoms of southern India which had not been
conquered by the Mauryan Empire. Following the death of Asoka the Mauryan
Empire collapsed, leaving India in chaos for 500 years.
 Gupta Empire – Established by Chandra Gupta I in 320 A.D., the Gupta Empire
ruled northern and central India until 535 A.D.

The first Gupta emperor came to power not through battle but by marrying a daughter of an influential royal family.
After his marriage, Chandra Gupta I took the title “Great King of Kings” in A.D. 320. His empire included Magadha and
the area north of it, with his power base along the Ganges River. His son, Samudra Gupta, became king in A.D. 335.
Although a lover of the arts, Samudra had a warlike side. He expanded the empire through 40 years of conquest.

While village life followed unchanging traditional patterns, the royal court of the third Gupta emperor was a place of
excitement and growth. Indians revered Chandra Gupta II for his heroic qualities. He defeated the Shakas – enemies to
the west – and added their coastal territory to his empire. This allowed the Guptas to engage in profitable trade with the
Mediterranean world. Chandra Gupta II also strengthened his empire through peaceful means by negotiating diplomatic
and marriage alliances. He ruled from A.D. 375 to 415.
Question #1: Which Indian ruler described in this section would you rather live
under? Explain.
 Patriarchal – Societies in which families are headed by the eldest male. Most
Indian families living in the Gupta Empire in Northern India were patriarchal.
 Matriarchal – Societies in which families are head by the eldest female. Some
Tamil groups in southern India were matriarchal.

The Gupta era is the first period for which historians have much information about daily life in India. Most Indians lived
in small villages. The majority were farmers, who walked daily from their homes to outlying fields. Craftspeople and
merchants clustered in specific districts in the towns. They had shops on the street level and lived in the rooms above.

Most Indian families were patriarchal. Parents, grandparents, uncles, aunts, and children all worked together to raise
their crops. Because drought was common, farmers often had to irrigate their crops. There was a tax on water, and every
month people had to give a day’s worth of labor to maintain wells, irrigation ditches, reservoirs, and dams. As in
Mauryan times, farmers owed a large part of their earnings to the king. Southern India followed a different cultural
pattern. Some Tamil groups were matriarchal. Property, and sometimes the throne, was passed through the female line.
Question #3: What caused the fall of the Gupta
Empire?
 While village life followed unchanging traditional patterns, the royal court of the
third Gupta emperor was a place of excitement and growth. Indians revered
Chandra Gupta II for his heroic qualities. He defeated the Shakas – enemies to the
west – and added their coastal territory to his empire. This allowed the Guptas to
engage in profitable trade with the Mediterranean world. Chandra Gupta II also
strengthened his empire through peaceful means by negotiating diplomatic and
marriage alliances. He ruled from A.D. 375 to 415.
 During the reign of the first three Guptas, India experienced a period of great
achievement in the arts, religious thought, and science. After Chandra Gupta II died,
new invaders threatened northern India. These fierce fighters, called the Hunas,
were related to the Huns who invaded the Roman Empire. Over the next 100 years,
the Gupta Empire broke into small kingdoms. Many were overrun by the Hunas or
other Central Asian nomads. The Empire ended about 535 A.D.
Closure Assignment #2
1. Which Indian ruler described in this section would you
rather live under? Explain.
2. What impact did the Greeks, Persians, and Central Asians
have on Indian life between the Mauryan and Gupta
Empires?
3. What caused the fall of the Gupta Empire?
 Mahayana – Sect of Buddhism which Theravada is too strict for ordinary people
and that Buddha is a divine figure. Through devotion to Buddha people can
achieve Nirvana. Mahayana Buddhists taught that the Buddha was a god and that
people could become Buddhas themselves through strict obedience.

By 250 B.C., Hinduism and Buddhism were India’s two main faiths. Hinduism is a complex polytheistic religion that
blended Aryan beliefs with the many gods and cults of the diverse peoples who preceded them. Buddhism teaches that
desire causes suffering and that humans should overcome desire by following the Eightfold Path. Over the centuries,
both religions had become increasingly removed from the people. Hinduism became dominated by priests, while the
Buddhist ideal of self-denial proved difficult for many to follow.

The Buddha had stressed that each person could reach a state of peace called nirvana. Nirvana was achieved by rejecting
the sensory world and embracing spiritual discipline. After the Buddha died, his followers developed many different
interpretations of his teachings. Although the Buddha had forbidden people to worship him, some began to teach that
he was a god. Some Buddhists also began to believe that many people could become Buddhas. These potential Buddhas,
called bodhisattvas, could choose to give up nirvana and work to save humanity through good works and self-sacrifice.
The new ideas changed Buddhism from a religion that emphasized individual discipline to a mass religion that offered
salvation to all and allowed popular worship.
Question #1: What do you think was the most significant effect of the changes to
Buddhism and Hinduism during this period? Explain.
 “The Teaching of the Elders”; Sect of Buddhism which believes Buddhism is a way
of life and not centered on individual salvation and that understanding oneself is
the way to achieve Nirvana.

By the first century A.D., Buddhists had divided over the new doctrines. Those who accepted them belonged to the
Mahayana sect. Those who held to the Buddha’s stricter, original teachings belonged to the Theravada sect. This is also
called the Hinayana sect, but Theravada is preferred. These new trends in Buddhism inspired Indian art. For example,
artists carved huge statues of the Buddha for people to worship. Wealthy Buddhist merchants who were eager to do
good deeds paid for the construction of stupas.

Just as Hinduism and Buddhism underwent changes, so did Indian culture and learning. India entered a highly productive
period in literature, art, science, and mathematics that continued until roughly A.D. 500. The expansion of trade spurred
the advance of science. Because sailors on trading ships used the stars to help them figure their position at sea,
knowledge of astronomy increased. From Greek invaders, Indians adapted Western methods of keeping time. They
began to use a calendar based on the cycles of the sun rather than the moon. They also adopted a seven-day week and
divided each day into hours. During the Gupta Empire, knowledge of astronomy increased further. Almost 1,000 years
before Columbus, Indian astronomers proved that the earth was round by observing a lunar eclipse. During the eclipse,
the earth’s shadow fell across the face of the moon. The astronomers noted that the earth’s shadow was curved,
indicating that the earth itself was round.
Question #1: What do you think was the most significant effect of the changes to
Buddhism and Hinduism during this period? Explain.
Mounded stone structures built over holy relics. In ancient India stupas were built by
wealthy Buddhist merchants around statues of the Buddha and became centers of
worship.
Buddhists walked paths circling stupas as a part of their meditation. Merchants also commissioned the carving of cave
temples out of solid rock. Artists then adorned these temples with beautiful sculptures and paintings.
The expansion of trade spurred the advance of science. Because sailors on trading ships used the stars to help them figure
their position at sea, knowledge of astronomy increased. From Greek invaders, Indians adapted Western methods of keeping
time. They began to use a calendar based on the cycles of the sun rather than the moon. They also adopted a seven-day
week and divided each day into hours.
During the Gupta Empire (A.D. 320 to about 500), knowledge of astronomy increased further. Almost 1,000 years before
Columbus, Indian astronomers proved that the earth was round by observing a lunar eclipse. During the eclipse, the earth’s
shadow fell across the face of the moon. The astronomers noted that the earth’s shadow was curved, indicating that the
earth itself was round.
Question #3: What do you think was the most significant effect of the changes to
Buddhism and Hinduism during this period? Explain.
Hindu god who was believed to be the creator of the
world.
Like Buddhism, Hinduism had become remote from the people. By the time of the Mauryan Empire, Hinduism
had developed a complex set of sacrifices that could be performed only by the priests. People who weren’t
priests had less and less direct connection with the religion.
Gradually, through exposure to other cultures and in response to the popularity of Buddhism, Hinduism changed.
Although the religion continued to embrace hundreds of gods, a trend toward monotheism was growing. Many
people began to believe that there was only one divine force in the universe. The various gods represented parts
of that force. The three most important Hindu gods were Brahma, Vishnu, and Shiva. Of the three, Vishnu and
Shiva were by far the favorites. Many Indians began to devote themselves to these two gods. As Hinduism
evolved into a more personal religion, its popular appeal grew.
Question #1: What do you think was the most significant effect of the changes
to Buddhism and Hinduism during this period? Explain.
Hindu god believed to be the preserver of the world.
Vishnu and Shiva became the two favorite Hindu gods
during the Mauryan Era.
Indian mathematics was among the most advanced in the world. Modern numerals, the zero, and the decimal
system were invented in India. Around A.D. 500, an Indian named Aryhabata calculated the value of pi to four
decimal places. He also calculated the length of the solar year as 365.3586805 days. That is very close to modern
calculations made with an atomic clock. In medicine, two important medical guides were compiled. They described
more than 1,000 diseases and more than 500 medicinal plants. Hindu physicians performed surgery – including
plastic surgery – and possibly gave injections.
In addition to knoweldge, India has always been rich in previous resources. Spices, diamonds, sapphires, gold,
pearls, and beautiful woods – including ebony, teak, and fragrant sandalwood – have been valuable items of
exchange. Trade between India and regions as distant as Africa and Sumeria began more than 4,000 years ago.
Trade expanded even after the Mauryan Empire ended around 185 B.C.
Question #1: What do you think was the most significant effect of the changes to
Buddhism and Hinduism during this period? Explain.
Hindu god believed to be the destroyer of the world.
Groups who invaded India after Mauryan rule ended helped to expand India’s trade to new regions. For
example, Central Asian nomads told Indians about a vast network of caravan routes known as Silk Roads. Once
Indians learned of the Silk Roads, they realized that they could make great profits by acting as middlemen.
Middlemen are go-betweens in business transactions. For example, Indian traders would buy Chinese goods and
sell them to traders traveling to Rome. To aid their role as middlemen, Indians built trading stations along the
Silk Roads. They were located at oases, which are fertile spots in desert areas.
Sea trade also increased. Traders used coastal routes around the rim of the Arabian Sea and up the Persian Gulf
to bring goods from India to Rome. In addition, traders from southern India would sail to Southeast Asia to
collect spices. They brought the spices back to India and sold them to merchants from Rome. Archaeologists
have found hoards of Roman gold coins in southern India. Records show that some Romans were upset about
the amount of gold their countrymen spent on Indian luxuries. They believed that to foster a healthy economy, a
state must collect gold rather than spend it.
Question #1: What do you think was the most significant effect of the changes to
Buddhism and Hinduism during this period? Explain.
One of India’s greatest writers, Kalidasa may have been the court poet for
Chandra Gupta II during the Gupta Empire.
Shakuntala tells the story of a beautiful girl who falls in love with and marries a middle-aged king.
After Shakuntala and her husband are separated, they suffer tragically because of a curse that
prevents the king from recognizing his wife when they meet again. Generations of Indians have
continued to admire Kalidasa’s plays because they are skillfully written and emotionally stirring.
Southern India also has a rich literary tradition. In the second century A.D., the city of Madurai in southern India
became a site of writing academics. More than 2,000 Tamil poems from this period still exist. In addition to
literature, drama was very popular. In southern India, traveling troupes of actors put on performances in cities
across the region. Women as well as men took part in these shows, which combined drama and dance. Many of
the classical dance forms in India today are based on techniques explained in a book written between the first
century B.C. and the first century A.D.
Question #2: Why did Indian culture flourish during the Gupta Empire?
 Named because traders used them to bring silk from China to western Asia and
then to Rome, the Silk Roads were a vast network of caravan routes connecting
China in the East with the Roman Empire in Europe and the Kingdom of Aksum in
Africa.

Increased trade led to the rise of banking in India. Commerce was quite profitable. Bankers were willing to lend money
to merchants and charge them interest on the loans. Interest rates varied, depending on how risky business was. During
Mauryan times, the annual interest rate on loans used for overseas trade was 240%! During the Gupta Empire, bankers
no longer considered sea trade so dangers, so they charged only 15 to 20 percent interest a year.

A number of Indian merchants went to live abroad and brought Indian culture with them. As a result, people throughout
Asia picked up and adapted a variety of Indian traditions. For example, Indian culture affected styles in art, architecture,
and dance throughout South and Southeast Asia. Indian influence was especially strong in Thailand, Cambodia, and on
the Indonesian island of Java. Traders also brought Indian religions to new regions. Hinduism spread northeast to Nepal
and southeast to Sri Lanka and Borneo. Buddhism spread because of traveling Buddhist merchants and monks. In time,
Buddhism even influenced China.
Question #3: Which do you think was more important to India’s economy, overland trade
or sea trade? Provide details to support your answer.
Closure Assignment #3
1.
What do you think was the most significant effect of the changes to Buddhism and Hinduism
during this period? Explain.
2.
Why did Indian culture flourish during the Gupta Empire?
3.
Which do you think was more important to India’s economy, overland trade or sea trade?
Provide details to support your answer.
Pax Mongolica
“Mongol Peace”; From the mid-1200s to the mid-1300s, the Mongols imposed
stability and law and order across much of Eurasia. They guaranteed safe passage for
trade caravans, travelers, and missionaries from one end of the empire to another,
leading to the greatest exchange of items and ideas in human history to that time.
Genghis Khan died in 1227 – not from violence, but from illness. His successors continued to expand his empire. IN less than 50 years,
the Mongols conquered territory from China to Poland. In so doing, they created the largest unified land empire in history. After
Genghis’ death, his sons and grandsons continued the campaign of conquest. Armies under their leadership drove south, east, and
west out of inner Asia. They completed their conquest of northern China and invaded Korea. They leveled the Russian city of Kiev and
reached the banks of the Adriatic Sea. The cities of Venice and Vienna were within their grasp. However, in the 1250s the Mongols
halted their westward campaign and turned their attention to Persia. By 1260, the Mongols had divided their huge empire into four
regions, or khanates. These were the Khanate of the Great Khan (Mongolica and China), the Khante of Changai (Central Asia), the
Ilkhanate (Persia), and the Khanate of the Golden Horde (Russia). A descendant of Genghis ruled each khante.
Many of the areas invaded by the Mongols never recovered. The populations of some cities were wiped out. In addition, the Mongols
destroyed ancient irrigation systems in areas such as the Tigris and Euphrates valleys. Thus, the land could no longer support
resettlement. While ferocious in war, the Mongols were quite tolerant in peace. They rarely imposed their beliefs or way of life on
those they conquered. Over time, some Mongol rulers even adopted aspects of the culture of the people they ruled. The Ilkhans and
the Golden Horde, for example, became Muslims. Growing cultural differences among the khanates contributed to the eventual
splitting up of the empire.
Mughals
Mughals - Natives of the mountainous region north of the Indus River valley who
established a dynasty which controlled most of India from 1526 to 1707. The Mughal
culture combined the religion of Islam with the warring nature of the Mongols.
The Gupta Empire crumbled in the late 400s. First, Huns from Central Asia invaded. Then, beginning in the 700s, warlike
Muslim tribes from Central Asia carved northwestern India into many small kingdoms. The people who invaded descended
from Muslim Turks and Afghans. Their leader was a descendant of Timur the Lame and of the Mongol conqueror Genghis
Khan. They called themselves Mughals, which means “Mongols”. The land they invaded had been through a long period of
turmoil.
The 8th century began with a long clash between Hindus and Muslims in this land of many kingdoms. For almost 300 years,
the Muslims were able to advance only as far as the Indus River valley. Starting around the year 1000, however, well-trained
Turkish armies swept into India. Led by Sultan Mahmud of Ghazni, they devastated Indian cities and temples in 17 brutal
campaigns. These attacks left the region weakened and vulnerable to other conquerors. Delhi eventually became the capital
of a loose empire of Turkish warlords called the Delhi Sultanate. These sultans treated the Hindus as conquered people.
Between the 13th and 16th centuries, 33 different sultans ruled this divided territory from their seat in Delhi. In 1398, Timur
the Lame destroyed Delhi. The city was so completely devastated that according to one witness, “for months, not a bird
moved in the city.” Delhi eventually was rebuilt. But it was not until the 16th century that a leader arose who would unify the
empire. In 1494, an 11-year-old boy named Babur inherited a kingdom in the area that is now Uzbekistan and Tajikstan. It
was only a tiny kingdom, and his elders soon took it away and drove him south. But Babur built up an army. In the years that
followed, he swept down into India and laid the foundation for the vast Mughal Empire.
Babur
Babur – The founder of the Mughal dynasty; a descendant of Gengis Khan & Timur the
Lame, Babur’s small forces used modern weaponry, including firearms, to conquer
northern India by 1526.
Delhi. a city in northern India, was captured by Babur in 1526. Babur had inherited a part of Timur Lenk’s empire in an upland river
valley of the Syr Dar’ya. As a youth he led a group of warriors who seized Kabul in 1504. Thirteen years later, Babur’s forces crossed the
Kyhber Pass into India. Babur’s forces were far smaller than those of his enemies. However, they had advanced weapons, including
artillery, and used them to great effect. Babur continued his conquests in North India until his death in 1530 at the age of 47.
Babur was a brilliant general. In 1526, for example, he led 12,000 troops to victory against an army of 100,000 commanded by a sultan
of Delhi. A year later, Babur also defeated a massive rajput army. After Babur’s death, his incompetent son, Humayun, lost most of the
territory Babur had gained. Babur’s 13-year-old grandson took over the throne after Humayun’s death. Babur’s grandson was called
Akbar, which means “Great.” Akbar certainly lived up to his name, ruling India with wisdom and tolerance from 1556 to 1605.
Akbar recognized military power as the root of his strength. In his opinion, a King must always be aggressive so that his neighbors will
not try to conquer him. Like the Safavids and the Ottomans, Akbar equipped his armies with heavy artillery. Cannons enabled him to
break into walled cities and extend his rule into much of the Deccan plateau. In a brilliant move, he appointed some rajputs as officers.
In this way he turned potential enemies into allies. This combination of military power and political wisdom enabled Akbar to unify a
land of at least 100 million people – more than in all of Europe put together.
Akbar was a genius at cultural blending. A Muslim, he continued the Islamic tradition of religious freedom. He permitted people of
other religions to practice their faiths. He proved his tolerance by marrying Hindu princesses without forcing them to convert. He
allowed his wives to practice their religious rituals in the palace. He proved his tolerance again by abolishing both the tax on Hindu
pilgrims and the hated jizya, or tax on non-Muslims. He even appointed a Spanish Jesuit to tutor his second son.
Akbar
Akbar – Grandson of Babur and perhaps the greatest conquering Mogul monarch; Akbar is best
known for religious tolerance. Though a Muslim himself, he granted religious freedom to his
subjects, married a Hindu woman, and permitted Jesuit priests to preach in his empire.
Akbar was only 14 when he took the throne. By using heavy artillery his armies were able to overpower the stone fortresses of their rivals. The
empire he established appeared highly centralized, but was actually a collection of semi-independent states held together by the power of the
emperor. Zamindars were local officials chosen and given land by the emperor who were responsible to collect taxes from those living in their
area and forward them to the emperor. All Indian peasants were required to pay about 1/3 of their annual harvest to the state, but the system
was applied justly. When bad weather struck in the 1590s, taxes were reduced or suspended altogether. Thanks to a long period of peace and
political stability, trade and manufacturing flourished.
Akbar governed through a bureaucracy of officials. Natives and foreigners, Hindus and Muslims, could all rise to high office. This approach
contributed to the quality of his government. Akbar’s chief finance minister, Todar Mal, a Hindu, created a clever – and effective – taxation
policy. He levied a tax similar to the present-day U.S. graduated income tax, calculating it as a percentage of
the value of the peasants’ crops. Because this tax was fair and affordable, the number of peasants who paid it
increased. This payment brought in much needed money for the empire. Akbar’s land policies had more mixed results. He
gave generous land grants to his bureaucrats. After they died, however, he reclaimed the lands and distributed them as he saw fit. On the
positive side, this policy prevented the growth of feudal aristocracies. On the other hand, it did not encourage dedication and hard work by the
Mughal officials. Their children would not inherit the land or benefit from their parents’ work. So the officials apparently saw no point in
devoting themselves to their property.
Closure Question #1: Why were Akbar’s tax policies so successful?
Sikhs
A nonviolent religious group whose doctrines contained elements similar to Hinduism and
Sufism (Islamic mysticism); however, the Sikhs see themselves as an independent tradition
and not an offshoot of another religion. The Sikhs protected Khusrau, Akbar’s grandson who
rebelled against the rule of his parents, Jahangir and Nur Jahan. As a result, future Mughal
rulers targeted the Sikhs as their enemies, arresting and torturing many of their leaders.
As Akbar extended the Mughal Empire, he welcomed influences from the many cultures in the empire. This cultural blending affected art,
education, politics, and language. Persian was the language of Akbar’s court and of high culture. The common people, however, spoke
Hindi, a language derived from Sanskrit. Hindi remains one of the most widely spoken languages in India today. Out of the Mughal armies,
where soldiers of many backgrounds rubbed shoulders, came yet another new language. This language was Urdu, which means “from the
soldiers camp.” A blend of Arabic, Persian, and Hindi, Urdu is today the official language of Pakistan.
The arts flourished at the Mughal court, especially in the form of book illustrations. These small, highly detailed and colorful paintings
were called miniatures. They were brought to a peak of perfection in the Safavid Empire. Babur’s son, Humayun, brought two masters of
this art to his court to teach it to the Mughals. Some of the most famous Mughal miniatures adorned the Akbarnamah (“Book of Akbar”),
the story of the great emperor’s campaigns and deeds. Indian art drew from traditions developed earlier in Rajput kingdoms. Hindu
literature also enjoyed a revival in Akbar’s time. The poet Tulsi Das, for example, was a contemporary of Akbar’s. He retold the epic love
story of Rama and Sita from the fourth century B.C. Indian poem the Ramayana in Hindi. This retelling, the Ramcaritmanas, is now even
more popular than the original.
Taj Mahal
Taj Mahal – Large building project built during the rule of Shah Jahan in the city of Agra in the
mid 17th century. The project took 20 years to build and is considered the most beautiful
building in India.
Women had long played an active role in Mogul tribal society. Mogul rulers often relied on female relatives for political advice. To a
degree, these Mogul attitudes toward women affected Indian society. Women from aristocratic families frequently received salaries and
were allowed to own land. At the same time, the Moguls placed certain restrictions on women under their interpretations of Islamic law.
These practices generally were adopted by Hindus. The practice of isolating women was followed by many Hindus.
Many Hindu practices remained unchanged by Mogul rule. The custom of suttee continued in spite of efforts by the Moguls to abolish it.
Child marriage also remained common. Another major artistic achievement of the Moguls was painting. Like architecture, painting in
Mogul India resulted from the blending of two cultures: Persian and Indian. Akbar established a state workshop for aristists who worked
under the guidance of Persian masters to create the Mogul school of painting. The “Akbar style” includes the portrayal of humans in
action, and Akbar encouraged his artists to imitate European art forms.
Jahangir’s son and successor, Shah Jahan, could not tolerate competition and secured his throne by assassinating all his possible rivals. He
had a great passion for two things: beautiful buildings and his wife Mumtaz Mahal. Nur Jahan had arranged this marriage between
Janagir’s son and her niece for political reasons. Shah Jahan, however, fell genuinely in love with his Persian princess. In 1631, Mumtaz
Mahal died at age 39 while giving birth to her 14th child. To enshrine his wife’s memory, he ordered that a tomb be built “as beautiful as
she was beautiful.” Fine white marble and fabulous jewels were gathered from many parts of Asia. This memorial, the Taj Mahal, has been
called one of the most beautiful buildings in the world. Its towering marble dome and slender minaret towers look like lace and seem to
change color as the sun moves across the sky.
Aurangzeb
Aurangzeb – Emperor of Moguls from 1658 to 1707; expanded the Mogul Empire to its largest
size, covering nearly all of India. Ended religious freedom, imposing a tax on non-Muslims and
forcing Hindus to convert to Islam.
Aurangzeb is one of the most controversial rulers in the history of India. Constant warfare and religious
intolerance made his subjects resentful. As a man of high principle, Aurangzeb attempted to eliminate
many of what he considered to be India’s social evils. Suttee was a Hindu custom of cremating a widow
alive on her husband’s funeral pyre; Aurangzeb outlawed this practice. Aurangzeb was a devout Muslim
and adopted a number of measures that reversed Mogul policies of religious tolerance. He tried to
forbid gambling and drinking. He also prohibited the building of new Hindu temples. These policies led
to Hindu outcries and domestic unrest. A number of revolts broke out in provinces throughout the
empire. After Aurangzeb’s death there were many contenders for the throne. India was increasingly
divided and vulnerable to attack from abroad. In 1739, Delhi was sacked by the Persians, who left it in
ashes.
Calcutta and Madras were British trading forts established in the mid-17th century from which England carried Indian-made cotton goods
to the East Indies, where they were traded for spices. The arrival of the British hasted the decline of the Mogul Empire. British successes
in India attracted rivals, especially the French. The French established their own forts. For a brief period, the French went on the
offensive, even capturing the British fort at Madras.
Closure Question #3: Why were the policies of Aurangzeb so destructive to the Mughal
Empire?
Closure Assignment #4
1.
Why were Akbar’s tax policies so successful?
2.
Why was Nur Jahan able to hold so much power in Jahangir’s court?
3.
Why were the policies of Aurangzeb so destructive to the Mughal Empire?
Geopolitics
An interest in or taking of land for its strategic location or products. Geopolitics
played an important role in the fate of the Ottoman Empire. The Ottomans controlled
access to the Mediterranean and the Atlantic sea trade. Discovery of oil in Persia
around 1900 and in the Arabian Peninsula after World War I focused even more
attention on the area.
The declining Ottoman Empire had difficulties trying to fit into the modern world. However, the Ottomans made attempts to
change before they finally were unable to hold back the European imperialist powers. When Suleyman I, the last great
Ottoman sultan, died in 1566, he was followed by a succession of weak sultans. The palace government broke up into a
number of quarreling, often corrupt factions. Weakening power brought other problems. Corruption and theft had caused
financial losses. Coinage was devalued, causing inflation. Once the Ottoman Empire had embraced modern technologies, but
now it fell further and further behind Europe.
When Selim III came into power in 1789, he attempted to modernize the army. However, the old janissary corps resisted his
efforts. Selim III was overthrown, and reform movements were temporarily abandoned. Meanwhile, nationalist feelings
began to stir among the Ottoman’s subject peoples. IN 1830, Greece gained its independence, and Serbia gained self-rule.
The Ottomans’ weakness was becoming apparent to European powers, who were expanding their territories. They began to
look for ways to take the lands away from the Ottomans.
Suez Canal
A human-made waterway that cut through the Isthmus of Suez, connecting the Red
Sea to the Mediterranean. It was built mainly with French money from private
interest groups, using Egyptian labor. The Suez Canal opened in 1869 with a huge
international celebration. However, efforts by Egypt’s leaders to modernize their
country, such as irrigation projects and communications networks, were enormously
expensive. In debt more than $450 million, Egypt accepted British occupation in 1882.
Muhammad Ali was an officer of the Ottoman army who, in 1805, seized power and established Egypt as an
independent nation. Before 1880, Europeans controlled little of the African continent directly. They were content to
let African rulers and merchants represent European interests. Between 1880 and 1900, however, Great Britain,
France, Germany, Belgium, Italy, Spain and Portugal, spurred by intense rivalries among themselves, placed virtually
all of African under European rule.
Egypt had been part of the Ottoman Empire, but as Ottoman rule declined, the Egyptians sought their independence.
In 1805, an officer of the Ottoman army named Muhammad Ali seized power and established a separate Egyptian
state. During the next 30 years, Muhammad Ali introduced a series of reforms to bring Egypt into the modern world.
He modernized the army, set up a public school system, and helped create small industries that refined sugar,
produced textiles and munitions, and built ships.
Closure Question #1: Why did Great Britain want to control the Suez Canal?
Sepoys
 Sepoys – Indian soldiers hired by the British East India Company to protect the company’s interests in
India.

Kanpur was the site of the massacre of 200 defenseless British women and children by Indian revolutionaries. This event, along with
other atrocities, led the British government to directly control India in 1876. Over the course of the 18th century, British power in India
had increased while the power of the Mongol rulers had declined. The British government gave a trading company, the British East India
Trading Company, power to become actively involved in India’s political and military affairs. To rule India, the British East India Company
had its own soldiers and forts. It also hired Indian soldiers, known as sepoys, to protect the company’s interests in the region. In 1857 a
growing Indian distrust of the British led to a revolt. The British call the revolt the Sepoy Mutiny. Indians call it the First War of
Independence. Neutral observers label it the Great Rebellion.

The major immediate cause of the revolt was a rumor that the troops’ new rifle cartridges were greased with cow and pig fat. The cow
was sacred to Hindus. The pig was taboo to Muslims. To load a rifle at that time, soldiers had to bite off the end of the cartridge. To the
sepoys, touching these greased cartridges to their lips would mean that they were polluted. A group of sepoys at an army post in
Meerut, near Delhi, refused to load their rifles with the cartridges. The British charged them with mutiny, publicly humiliated them, and
put them in prison. This treatment of their comrades enraged the sepoy troops in Meerut. They went on a rampage, killing 50 European
men, women, and children. Soon other Indians joined the revolt, including Indian princes whose land the British had taken.

Within a year, however, Indian troops loyal to the British and fresh British troops had crushed the rebellion. Although Indian troops
fought bravely and outnumbered the British by about 230,000 to 45,000, they were not well organized. Rivalries between Hindus and
Muslims kept the Indians from working together. Atrocities were terrible on both sides. At Kanpur, Indians massacred 200 defenseless
women and children in a building known as the House of the Ladies. Recapturing Kanpur, the British took their revenge before executing
the Indians.
Closure Question #2: Do you think the benefits of British rule to India outweighed its
costs? Support your answer. (At least 1 sentence)
The Indian people paid a high price for the peace and stability brought by British rule.
Perhaps the greatest cost was economic. British entrepreneurs and a small number of
Indians reaped financial benefits from British rule, but it brought hardships for millions
of others in both the cities and the countryside. British manufactured goods destroyed
local industries. British textiles put thousands of women out of work and severely
damaged the Indian textile industry. In rural areas, the British sent zamindars to collect
taxes. The British believed that using these local officials would make it easier to collect
taxes from the peasants.
However, the zamindars in India took advantage of their new authority. They increased
taxes and forced the less fortunate peasants to become tenants or lose their land
entirely. The British also encouraged many farmers to switch from growing food to
growing cotton. As a result, food supplies could not keep up with the growing
population. Between 1800 and 1900, 30 million Indians died of starvation. Finally,
British rule was degrading, even for the newly educated upper classes who benefited
the most from it.
“Jewel in the Crown”
Term used by the British to describe India, which was considered the most valuable of
all of Britain’s colonies. The Industrial Revolution had turned Britain into the world’s
workshop, and India was a major supplier of raw materials for that workshop. Its 300
million people were also a large potential market for British made goods.
British rule in India had several benefits for subjects. It brought order and stability to a society badly divided into many states
with different political systems. It also led to a fairly honest, efficient government. Through the efforts of the British
administrator and historian Lord Thomas Macaulay, a new school system was set up. The new system used the English
language. The goal of the new school system was to train Indian children to serve in the government and army. The new
system served only elite, upper-class Indians, however. 90% of the population remained uneducated and illiterate. Railraods,
the telegraph, and a postal service were introduced to India shortly after they appeared in Great Britain. In 1853 the first trial
run of a passenger train traveled the short distance from Bombay to Thane. By 1900, 25,000 miles of railroads crisscrossed
India.
The British set up restrictions that prevented the Indian economy from operating on its own. British policies called for India
to produce raw materials for British manufacturing and to buy British goods. In addition, Indian competition with British
goods was prohibited. For example, India’s own handloom textile industry was almost put out of business by imported British
textiles. Cheap cloth from England flooded the Indian market and undercut local producers.
Sepoy Mutiny
 (1857-1858) Violent uprising against British rule by the Sepoys. The revolt was sparked by a
rumor that the cartridges for the rifles given to the Sepoys by the British were greased with
beef and pork fat. Both Hindus, who consider the cow sacred, and Muslims, who do not eat
pork, were outraged by the news. The Sepoys refused to use the cartridges and, as a result
many were jailed by the British. Those that remained free responded by attacking the British,
taking the city of Delhi. Finally, fresh British troops arrived and put down the uprising.

The first Indian nationalists were upper-class and English educated. Many of them were from urban areas, such as Bombay (Mumbai),
Madras (Chennai), and Calcutta (Kolkata). At first, many Indian nationalists preferred reform to revolution. However, the slow pace of
reform convinced many that relying on British goodwill was futile. In 1885 a small group of Indians met in Bombay to form the Indian
National Congress. The INC had difficulties because of religious differences. The INC sought independence for all Indians, regardless of
class or religious background. However, many of its leaders were Hindu and reflected Hindu concerns. Later, Muslims called for the
creation of a separate Muslim League. Such a league would represent the interests of the millions of Muslims in Indian society.

The love-hate tension in India that arose from British domination led to a cultural awakening as well. The cultural revival began in the
early 19th century with the creation of a British college in Calcutta. A local publishing house was opened. It issued textbooks on a variety
of subjects, including the sciences, Sanskrit, and Western literature. The publisher also printed grammars and dictionaries in various
Indian languages. This revival soon spread to other regions of India. It led to a search for a new national identity and a modern literary
expression. Indian novelists and poets began writing historical romances and epics. Some wrote in English, but most were
uncomfortable with a borrowed colonial language. They preferred to use their own regional tongues.
Raj
 The direct rule of India by the British. Following the Sepoy Mutiny the British government
determined that it needed to maintain a stronger presence in India, and in 1858 Queen
Victoria was recognized as the Empress of India.

As a result of the Sepoy Uprising, the British Parliament transferred the powers of the East India Company directly to the British
government. In 1876 Queen Victoria took the title of Empress of India. The people of India were now her colonial subjects, and
India became her “Jewel in the Crown.” Although the rebellion failed, it helped to fuel Indian nationalism. The rebellion marked
the first significant attempt by the people of South Asia to throw off British rule. Later, a new generation of Indian leaders would
take up the cause. After the Sepoy Mutiny, the British government began to rule India directly. They appointed a British official
known as a viceroy. A British civil service staff assisted the viceroy. This staff of about 3,500 officials ruled almost 300 million
people, the largest colonial population in the world. British rule involved both benefits and costs for Indians.

British rule in India had several benefits for subjects. It brought order and stability to a society badly divided into many states with
different political systems. It also led to a fairly honest, efficient government. Through the efforts of the British administrator and
historian Lord Thomas Macaulay, a new school system was set up. The new system used the English language. The goal of the new
school system was to train Indian children to serve in the government and army. The new system served only elite, upper-class
Indians, however. 90% of the population remained uneducated and illiterate. Railraods, the telegraph, and a postal service were
introduced to India shortly after they appeared in Great Britain. In 1853 the first trial run of a passenger train traveled the short
distance from Bombay to Thane. By 1900, 25,000 miles of railroads crisscrossed India.
Closure Question #3: Many British lived in India for decades. Do you think living in
India would have changed British attitudes toward Indians? Explain. (At least 1
sentence)
Closure Assignment #5
1. Why did Great Britain want to control the Suez
Canal?
2. Do you think the benefits of British rule to India
outweighed its costs? Support your answer. (At
least 1 sentence)
3. Many British lived in India for decades. Do you
think living in India would have changed British
attitudes toward Indians? Explain. (At least 1
sentence)
Rowlatt Acts / Amritsar Massacre
Rowlatt Acts (1919) – Laws which allowed the British government in India to jail
protesters without trial for as long as two years. To Western-educated Indians, many
of who had fought for Great Britain during World War I, denial of a trial by jury
violated their individual rights.
Amritsar Massacre (1919) – To protest the Rowlatt Acts, 10,000 Hindus and Muslims
gathered at the city of Amritsar to fast, pray, and listen to political speeches. The
British commander of the city believed the protesters were only defying British law
and, without warning, ordered his troops to fire on the crowd. Officials reports
showed that nearly 400 Indians died and 1,200 were wounded.
Until World War I, the vast majority of Indians had little interest in nationalism. The situation changed as over a million
Indians enlisted in the British army. In return for their service, the British government promised reforms that would
eventually lead to self-government. In 1918, Indian troops returned home from the war. They expected Britain to fulfill its
promise. Instead, they were once again treated as second-class citizens. Radical nationalists carried out acts of violence to
show their hatred of British rule. To curb dissent, in 1919 the British passed the Rowlatt Acts.
Closure Question #1: What changes resulted from the Amritsar massacre? (At least 1
sentence)
Mohandas K. Gandhi
“Great Soul”, Indian people referred to Mohandis Gandhi using this title out of respect for his
leadership of non-violent protests against British rule in the early 1900s.
Gandhi left South Africa in 1914. When he returned to India, he organized mass protests against British laws. A believer in non-violence, Gandhi
used the methods of civil disobedience. In 1919 British troops killed hundreds of unarmed protesters in Amritsar, in northwestern India. Horrified
at the violence, Gandhi briefly retreated from active politics, but was later arrested and imprisoned for his role in protests. In 1935 Britain passed
the Government of India Act. This act expanded the role of Indians in governing. Before, the Legislative Council could only give advice to the
British governor. Now, it became a two-house parliament, and two-thirds of its Indian members were to be elected. Similar bodies were created at
the provincial level. Five million Indians (still a small percentage of the population) were given the right to vote.
The Indian National Congress (INC), founded in 1885, sought reforms in Britain’s government of India. Reforms, however, were no longer enough.
Under its new leader, Motilal Nehru, the INC wanted to push for full independence. Gandhi, now released from prison, returned to his earlier
policy of civil disobedience. He worked hard to inform ordinary Indians of his beliefs and methods. It was wrong, he said, to harm any living being.
Hate could only be overcome by love, and love, rather than force, could win people over to one’s position.
Nonviolence was central to Gandhi’s campaign of noncooperation and civil disobedience. To protest unjust British laws, Gandhi told his people:
“Don’t pay your taxes or send your children to an English-supported school… Make your own cotton cloth by spinning the thread at home, and
don’t buy English-made goods. Provide yourselves with home-made salt, and do not by government-made salt. Britain had increased the salt tax
and prohibited the Indians from manufacturing, or harvesting their own salt. In 1930 Gandhi protested these measures. Accompanied by
supporters, he walked to the sea on what became known as the Salt March. On reaching the coast, Gandhi picked up a pinch of salt. Thousands of
Indians followed his act of civil disobedience. Gandhi and many other members of the INC were arrested.
Closure Question #2: How did Gandhi’s methods for achieving his nationalist goals differ from
those of many other revolutionaries? (At least 1 sentence)
We generally think of revolutions and independence movements as being
violent. Yet Mohandas Gandhi, leader of India’s independence movement,
used a nonviolent approach – civil disobedience – to protest British control in
India.
Gandhi’s methods included boycotts of British goods and institutions as well as
prolonged fasting (giving up food) to draw attention to issues. These protests
eventually led to independence for India – and inspired civil rights leaders
throughout the world.
In 1930 Gandhi launched a protest to oppose the British Salt Acts. These laws
made it illegal to prepare salt from seawater, which would deprive the British
government of tax revenue from its monopoly of the sale of salt. Gandhi set
out with 78 followers for the coast to collect seawater to make salt. The British
jailed Gandhi and more than 60,000 of his followers. Yet the protesters had
sent a powerful message to the British. A year later, the government agreed to
negotiate with Gandhi as the representative of the Indian National Congress.
Civil Disobedience / Salt March
Civil Disobedience – Refusal to obey laws considered to be unjust.
Salt March (1930) – To show their opposition to British laws which required Indians to
purchase their salt only from the British government and to pay taxes on salt
purchases, Gandhi and his followers walked 240 miles to the seacoast where they
made their own salt. The march sparked similar protests throughout India. British
police officers used violence to break-up the protests and about 60,000 people
,including Gandhis, were arrested.
In the 1930s, Jawaharlal Nehru entered the movement. The son of Motilal Nehru, Jawaharlal studied law in Great Britain. He
was a new kind of Indian politician – upper class and intellectual. The independence movement split into two paths. The one
identified with Gandhi was religious, Indian, and traditional. The other, identified with Nehru, was secular, Western, and
modern. The two approaches created uncertainty about India’s future path. In the meantime, another problem had arisen in
the independence movement. Hostility between Hindus and Muslims had existed for centuries. Muslims were dissatisfied
with the Hindu dominance of the INC and raised the cry “Islam is in danger.” By the 1930s, the Muslim League was under the
leadership of Mohammed Ali Jinnah. The league believed in the creation of a separate Muslim state of Pakistan (“the land of
the pure”) in the northwest.
Closure Assignment #6
1. What changes resulted from the Amritsar massacre? (At
least 1 sentence)
2. How did Gandhi’s methods for achieving his nationalist goals
differ from those of many other revolutionaries? (At least 1
sentence)
3. How did World War I create an atmosphere for political
change in India and Southwest Asia? (At least 1 complete
sentence)
Congress Party
The largest political party in India during its transition period from being a British colony to an
independent nation. Most members of the Congress Party were Hindus, but the party at times
had many Muslim members.
After World War II, dramatic political changes began to take place across the world. This was especially the case with regard to the policy
of colonialism. Countries that held colonies began to question the practice. After the world struggle against dictatorship, many leaders
argued that no country should control another nation. Others questioned the high cost and commitment of holding colonies. Meanwhile,
the people of colonized regions continued to press even harder for their freedom. All of this led to independence for one of the largest
and most populous colonies in the world: British-held India.
The British had ruled India for almost two centuries. Indian resistance to Britain, which had existed from the beginning, intensified in
1939, when Britain committed India’s armed forces to World War II without first consulting the colony’s elected representatives. The
move left Indian nationalists stunned and humiliated. Indian leader Mohandas Gandhi launched a nonviolent campaign of
noncooperation with the British. Officials imprisoned numerous nationalists for this action. In 1942, the British tried to gain the support of
the nationalists by promising governmental changes after the war. But the offer did not include Indian independence.
Closure Question #1: Why might India’s political and economic success be so crucial to
the future of democracy in Asia? (At least 1 sentence)
Muslim League / Muhammad Ali Jinnah
Muslim League – Indian political party founded to protect Muslim interests. The
Muslim League was the chief competition of the Congress Party, which Muslims
believed served only the interests of Hindus.
Muhammad Ali Jinnah – Leader of the Muslim League; Jinnah insisted that all
Muslims resign from the Congress Party, vowing that Muslims would never accept
Indian independence if it meant that Hindus would become rulers of the nation.
As they intensified their struggle against the British, Indians also struggled with each other. India had long been home to
two main religious groups. In the 1940’s, India had approximately 350 million Hindus and about 100 million Muslims.
When World War II ended, Britain found itself faced with enormous war debts. As a result, British leaders began to rethink
the expense of maintaining and governing distant colonies. With India continuing to push for independence, the stage was
set for the British to hand over power. However, a key problem emerged: Who should receive power – Hindus or Muslims?
Muslims resisted attempts to include them in an Indian government dominated by Hindus. Rioting between the two groups
broke out in several Indian cities. In August 1946, four days of clashes in Calcutta left more than 5,000 people dead and
more than 15,000 hurt.
Closure Question #2: How did religious and cultural differences create problems for
newly emerging nations? (At least 1 sentence)
Partition
The division of India into separate Hindu and Muslim nations. British officials became
convinced that the only way to ensure a safe and secure India was partition. In 1947,
the northwest and eastern regions of India, where most Muslims lived, became the
new nation of Pakistan.
The British House of Commons passed an act on July 16, 1947, that granted two nations, India and Pakistan, independence in
one month’s time. In that short period, more than 500 independence native princes had to decide which nation they would
join. The administration of the courts, the military, the railway, and the police – the whole of the civil service – had to be
divided down to the last paper clip. Most difficult of all, millions of Indian citizens – Hindus, Muslims, and yet another
significant religious groups, the Sikhs – had to decide where to go.
During the summer of 1947, 10 million people were on the move in the Indian subcontinent. As people scrambled to
relocate, violence among the different religious groups erupted. Muslims killed Sikhs who were moving into India. Hindus
and Sikhs killed Muslims who were headed into Pakistan. In all, an estimated 1 million died. “What is there to celebrate?”
Gandhi mourned. “I see nothing but rivers of blood.” Gandhi personally went to the Indian capital of Delhi to plead for fair
treatment of Muslim refugees. While there, he himself became a victim of the nation’s violence. A Hindu extremist who
thought Gandhi too protective of Muslims shot and killed him on January 30, 1948.
Closure Question #2: How did religious and cultural differences create problems
for newly emerging nations? (At least 1 sentence)
Jawaharlal Nehru / Indira Gandhi
Jawaharlal Nehru – Leader of Independent India from 1950 to 1965; India refused to align
itself with either the United States or the Soviet Union during the Cold War.
Indira Gandhi – Nehru’s daughter (not Mohandis Gandhi’s), Indira Gandhi served as prime
minister of India, serving from 1966 to 1984.
As British rule ended in India, India’s Muslims and Hindus were bitterly divided. India’s leaders decided to create two countries, one Hindu
(India) and one Muslim (Pakistan). Pakistan would have two regions: West Pakistan and East Pakistan. When India and Pakistan became
independent on August 15, 1947, Hindus moved toward India; Muslims, toward Pakistan. More than one million people were killed in the
mass migrations. One of the dead was well known. On January 30, 1948, a Hindu militant assassinated Mohandas Gandhi as he was going
to morning prayer.
Having worked closely with Gandhi for Indian independence, Jawaharlal Nehru led the Congress Party, formerly the Indian National
Congress. The popular prime minister had strong ideas about India’s future. He admired British political institutions and the socialist
ideals of the British Labour Party. His goal was parliamentary government and a moderate socialist economy. Under Nehru, the state took
ownership of major industries, utilities, and transportation. Private enterprise was permitted at the local level, and farming was left in
private hands. Industrial production almost tripled between 1950 and 1965. Nehru also guided India’s foreign policy through the principle
of nonalignment.
After Nehru’s death, the Congress Party selected his daughter, Indira Gandhi, as prime minister. In the 1950s and 1960s, India’s population
grew by 2% a year, contributing to widespread poverty. Millions lived in vast city slums. Indian society grouped people into castes, or
social classes. The caste into which people were born largely determined their occupation and role in society. The system assured that the
lowest castes would remain in poverty. Although caste-based discrimination is illegal in India today, it continues, especially in the
countryside.
Benazir Bhutto
The daughter of a former Pakistani dictator, Bhutto was twice elected prime minister
of Pakistan in the 1980s and 1990s. Following independence, Muslim Pakistan has
repeatedly suffered through civil wars and military coups. After the 9/11 attacks on
the United States, the Pakistani government became a key American ally in the fight
against terrorism; however, opposition to the American-Pakistani alliance is strong.
Bhutto was assassinated in 2007.
From the beginning, the two regions of Pakistan experienced strained relations. While East Pakistan had
the larger population, it was often ignored by West Pakistan, home to the central government. In 1970, a
giant cyclone and tidal wave struck East Pakistan and killed an estimated 266,000 residents. While
international aid poured into Pakistan, the government in West Pakistan did not quickly transfer that aid to
East Pakistan. Demonstrations broke out in East Pakistan, and protesters called for an end to all ties with
West Pakistan. On March 26, 1971, East Pakistan declared itself an independent nation called Bangladesh.
A civil war followed between Bangladesh and Pakistan. Eventually, Indian forces stepped in and sided with
Bangladesh. Pakistan forces surrendered. More than 1 million people died in the war. Pakistan lost about
one-seventh of its area and about one-half of its population to Bangladesh.
Closure Question #3: In what ways did Pakistan also undergo a partition? (At least
1 sentence)
Closure Assignment #7
1. Why might India’s political and economic success be so crucial to the future
of democracy in Asia? (At least 1 sentence)
2. How did religious and cultural differences create problems for newly
emerging nations? (At least 1 sentence)
3. In what ways did Pakistan also undergo a partition? (At least 1 sentence)
Developed Nations
Nations with industrialization, transportation, and business facilities for
advanced production of manufactured goods. In modern times developed
nations, such as the United States, Japan, and most of Western Europe, have lost
manufacturing jobs to emerging nations.
In both Asia and the Western world, an explosion in scientific knowledge prompted great progress that quickly led to
new industries. A prime example was plastics. In the 1950s, a process to develop plastics from petroleum at low
pressures and low temperatures was perfected. Within a few years, industries made a host of products easily and
cheaply out of plastics. Other technological advances have also changed industrial processes, lowered costs, and
increased the quality or the speed of production. For example, robotic arms on automobile assembly lines made
possible the fast and safe manufacture of high-quality cars.
Technological advances in manufacturing reduced the need for factory workers. But in other areas o the economy,
new demands were emerging. Computerization and communications advances changed the processing of
information. By the 1980s, people could transmit information quickly and cheaply. Information industries such as
financial services, insurance, market research, and communications services boomed. Those industries depended on
“knowledge workers”, or people whose jobs focus on working with information.
Closure Question #1: In what ways has technology changed the workplace of people
across the world?
Emerging Nations
Nations that are in the process of becoming industrialized. Emerging nations
became prime locations for new manufacturing operations. Some economists
believe these areas were chosen because they had many eager workers whose
skills fit manufacturing-type jobs and who would work for less money than
those in developed nations.
In recent years, there has been considerable debate on the impact of globalization. Supporters suggest that open,
competitive markets and the free flow of goods, services, technology, and investments benefit all nations.
Globalization, they argue, has resulted in a dramatic increase in the standard of living across the world. Even some
opponents agree that practically all nations have seen some benefit from globalization. However, they note that the
developed nations have benefited the most. Other opponents charge that globalization has been a disaster for the
poorest countries. They suggest that many poor countries are worse off today than they were in the past. They
argue that investment practices, trade agreements, and aid packages must be designed to protect the interests of
the poorest nations.
Closure Question #1: In what ways has technology changed the workplace of people
across the world?
Global Economy
All the financial interactions – among people, businesses, and governments – that cross
international borders. In the second half of the 1800s the global economy began to take
shape, as huge cargo ships could inexpensively carry enormous supplies of fuels and other
goods from one part of the world to another.
Another reflection of the global economy is the multinational corporation (a company that has divisions in more than two countries).
Prominent examples of multinational corporations include Siemens, IBM, Toyota, and the Sony Corporation. The growing number of
multinational corporations that do business around the world increasingly tie one country to another in a global economy. For example,
an economic downturn in the United States can create stagnant conditions in Europe and Asia. We live in an interdependent world.
Global trade is another important component of the global economy. Over the years, many nations joined in talks to make trade between
countries free and easy. These talks led to General Agreement on Trade and Tariffs (GATT). In 1995, the nations that had signed the GATT
treaties agreed to create the World Trade Organization. The WTO has been criticized for ignoring environmental and health concerns and
for leaving out small and developing countries. Still, it is the only global organization that deals with rules of trade among nations.
Closure Question #1: In what ways has technology changed the workplace of people
across the world?
Free Trade
The elimination of trade barriers, such as tariffs, among nations. Free trade is a major goal of
globalization. As early as 1947, nations began discussing ways to open trade. The result of these
discussions was the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade. (GATT)
Companies that operate in a number of different countries are called multinational or transnational corporations. U.S. companies such as
Exxon Mobil, General Motors, and Ford; European companies such as BP, DaimlerChrysler, and Royal Dutch/Shell; and Japanese companies
such as Toyota, Mitsubishi, and Mitsui all became multinational giants. All of these companies have established manufacturing plants,
offices, or stores in many countries. For their manufacturing plants, they select spots where the raw materials or labor are cheapest. This
enables them to produce components of their products on different continents. They ship the various components to another location to
be assembled. This level of economic integration allows such companies to view the whole world as the market for their goods. Goods or
services are distributed throughout the world as if there were not national boundaries.
Opening up the world’s markets to trade is a key aspect of globalization. Over the years, several meetings among the nations that signed
the GATT have brought about a general lowering of protective tariffs and considerable expansion of free trade. Since 1995, the World Trade
Organization (WTO) has overseen the GATT to ensure that trade among nations flows as smoothly and freely as possible. A European
organization set up in 1951 promoted tariff-free trade among member countries. This experiment in economic cooperation was so
successful that six years later, a new organization, the European Economic Community (EEC), was formed. Over time, most of the other
Western European countries joined the organization, which has been known as the European Union (EU) since 1992.
Closure Question #2: Why might some nations favor imposing tariffs on the import of
certain products?
A group of five international organizations which provide grants,
loans, and advice for economic development in developing
countries. The World Bank’s stated goal is “a world free of poverty”.
Today about 770 million adults – one-fifth of the world’s population – lack basic reading and
writing skills. This statistic represents a shocking waste of human potential. To combat this
problem, the United Nations Education, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO)
coordinates the efforts of many organizations participating in its Education for All program.
The program’s goal is to increase global literacy by 50% by 2015.
The United Nations sees literacy as essential to ending poverty, slowing population growth,
achieving gender equality, and ensuring economic development. Literacy provides access to
education, which contributes to a more productive workforce and to fuller participation in
today’s world.
Closure Question #2: Why might some nations favor imposing tariffs on the import of
certain products?
Founded in 1945 to oversee the global financial system, today the IMF watches
exchange rates and offers financial and technical assistance in 184 countries
worldwide.
Both the World Bank and the International Monetary Fund have been criticized for forcing inappropriate
Western economic practices on non-Western nations. Critics also argue that World Bank and IMF
policies only aggravate the poverty and debt of developing nations.
Groups of nations have joined together to form trading blocs. By 2004, the European Union included 25
member states and is the world’s largest single trading entity. The EU has a single internal market and a
common currency (the euro.)
Elsewhere, the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) created a free trade area for Canada, the
United States, and Mexico. The Asia Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC) agreement has tried to do the
same among nations that border the Pacific Ocean.
Made up of more than 140 member nations, the WTO arranges trade agreements
and settles trade disputes worldwide.
Another reflection of the global economy is the multinational corporation (a company that has divisions in more than
two countries). Prominent examples of multinational corporations include Siemens, IBM, Toyota, and the Sony
Corporation. The growing number of multinational corporations that do business around the world increasingly tie one
country to another in a global economy. For example, an economic downturn in the United States can create stagnant
conditions in Europe and Asia. We live in an interdependent world.
Global trade is another important component of the global economy. Over the years, many nations joined in talks to
make trade between countries free and easy. These talks led to General Agreement on Trade and Tariffs (GATT). In
1995, the nations that had signed the GATT treaties agreed to create the World Trade Organization. The WTO has been
criticized for ignoring environmental and health concerns and for leaving out small and developing countries. Still, it is
the only global organization that deals with rules of trade among nations.
Ozone Layer / “Global Warming”
Ozone Layer – Earth’s main protection against the Sun’s damaging ultraviolet rays; The release
of chemicals called chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) has destroyed ozone in Earth’s upper
atmosphere. The increase in ultraviolet radiation reaching earth’s surface has caused skin
cancer rates to rise in many parts of the world and may result in damage to plant life as well.
“Global Warming” – An increase in the overall temperature of planet earth; 8 of the 10 hottest
years in recorded history have occurred since 2000. Many scientists link the rise of earth’s
temperature to the release of carbon dioxide into earth’s atmosphere, creating a barrier which
keep heat from being released into outer space.
Ecological disasters have also harmed our environment. A chemical plant at Bhopal, India released toxic fumes into the air in
1984. A nuclear accident at Chernobyl in 1986 released radiation. Hundreds died, and there were long-last health and
environmental consequences. In 1989 the oil tanker Exxon Valdez ran aground in Alaska. The spill killed thousands of birds
and polluted fishing areas.
In the social and economic spheres of the Western world, the gap that once separated men and women has been steadily
narrowing. More and more women are joining the workforce, and they make up half of university graduates in Western
countries. Many countries have laws that require equal pay for women and men doing the same work, and some laws
prohibit promotions based on gender. Nevertheless, women in many Western countries still do not hold many top positions
in business or government.
Global Warming
Sustainable Growth
The goal of nation’s who hope to reduce the negative effect that development
has on the environment; Sustainable growth involves meeting current
economic needs, while ensuring the preservation of the environment and the
conservation of resources for future generations.
Economic development has also led to problems with the land. Large-scale soil erosion is a worldwide problem due
to damaging farming techniques. The habitat destruction that comes from land development has also led to
shrinking numbers of wildlife around the world At present, the extinction rate of plants and animals is about a
thousand times greater than it would naturally be, and appears to be increasing. This high extinction rate means
that certain species can no longer serve as an economic resource. The resulting loss of wildlife could endanger
complex and life-sustaining processes that keep Earth in balance.
Working together, economists and scientists are looking for ways to reduce the negative effect that development
has on the environment. Their goal is to manage development so that growth can occur, but without destroying air,
water, and land resources. The concept is sometimes called “green growth.” many people feel that the negative
impact of economic growth on the environment will not be completely removed.
Closure Question #3: Do you think that sustainable growth is possible? Why or why not?
The spread of nuclear weapons production technology and knowledge to nations
without that capability. The UN works to stop nuclear proliferation; however, in
recent years India, Pakistan, Israel, North Korea, and Iran have all gained nuclear
weapon capability in the past 20 years.
The UN established the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) in 1957. This agency operates a safeguards system
against nuclear proliferation. The greatest risk comes from countries that have not joined or have violated the Nuclear
Nonproliferation Treaty (NPT). India, Pakistan, Israel, North Korea, and Iran fall within these categories. In 1998, India
and Pakistan exploded nuclear devices underground. North Korea performed its first nuclear test in October 2006, and
Iran refused to shelve its nuclear enrichment program. As the IAEA director said, “The treat of nuclear terrorism is real
and current… the existence of a nuclear threat anywhere is a threat everywhere, and as a global community, we will
win or lose this battle together.”
A July 2006 estimate put the current world population at over 6.5 billion people, only 18 years after passing the 5
billion mark. At its current rate of growth, the world population could reach 12.8 billion by 2050, according to the UN’s
long-range population projections. The UN’s more conservative projection puts that number at 8.9 billion. Even with
the more conservative figure, the world population is expected to increase 37% over the next four decades. Soon, the
most populous nations in the world will be developing countries, especially India and China. By 2050 India will have
surpassed China in population and will likely remain the most populous country in the world thereafter.
Closure Question #4: Why is nuclear proliferation a global concern? (At least 1
sentence)
Closure Assignment #8
1. In what ways has technology changed the workplace
of people across the world?
2. Why might some nations favor imposing tariffs on the
import of certain products?
3. Do you think that sustainable growth is possible? Why
or why not?
4. Why is nuclear proliferation a global concern? (At
least 1 sentence)