Transcript English Liberalism


French Revolution/ Napoleonic Wars over

Ideas of liberalism and French radicalism spreading

Industrialism heating up and spreading

Many elites nervous about the changing world

Determined to stop, go back to 18th century conditions

Recapture their lost world
Congress of Vienna (1815)
International
Not
To
All
council
“congress” as in today’s sense
determine future of post-Napoleon Europe
European states present
Congress of Vienna
All
European powers present
But
dominated by the Big 5
Prussia,
Austria, Russia, France, England
Prince Klemens Metternich
Austrian
Most
foreign minister
powerful figure in Austria
Dominated
Hostile
the discussions at Vienna
to French Revolution and liberal principles

Legitimacy

Necessary for peace and harmony

Calming force after tumultuous French Revolution

Power should be in hands of traditional authorities

Not whomever the people chose

No democracy, no republics

Legitimacy

Rejection of liberal notion of government of the
people, by the people, for the people

Instead wanted government of rulers, by rulers, for
rulers

Bourbon dynasty restored in France

Louis XVIII

King Ferdinand VII restored in Spain

King Dom Joao VI back in Portugal

Balance of power
Also necessary for peace and harmony
o No 1 country should be too strong
o No more Napoleons conquering the continent
o Redrew map of Europe
o Land swapping
o Did not matter what the people wanted
o Aristocrats to decide who was under what authority
o

Prussia





Lost some of Polish lands
But given new lands in Saxony and on Rhine River
Kept Prussia strong
Can check Russia (to east), France (to west), and Austria (to south)
Austria



Lost Austrian Netherlands
Compensated with parts of northern Italy (Lombardy and Venetia)
Can check Russia, France, and Prussia

Austrian Netherlands (Belgium)
Combined with Dutch Republic
 New Kingdom of the Netherlands
 Ruled by King William I of the House of Orange


Russia




Poland technically independent
But under Russian control, so only independent on paper
Also given Finland
Sweden


Given Norway
As combined kingdom

Piedmont-Sardinia
Northern Italy
 Enlarged
 An emerging power
 Significant in the near future


Concert of Europe
 Sense
of cooperation, alliance
 Of the Big 5
 Aristocrats and rulers to cooperate
 Rather than to seek war and compete
 To dominate European affairs
 To destroy any hint of liberal reform or revolution
 To spread conservative ideology instead

Principle of intervention
 The
Big 5 to intervene in revolutions
 To stop them
 Too dangerous to the rest of Europe
 England rejected, pulled out of Concert
 Opposed interfering in nations’ internal affairs

Principle of intervention
 Briefly
discussions to invade US
 Overthrow the republic and Constitution
 Convert into monarchy
 Rejected by England
 Idea never went anywhere
Edmund Burke
English
philosopher
Spokesman
Not
for classical conservatism
all elites were conservative, but most were

Organic society
Saw society as essentially a large family
 All connected through blood, common nationality ty
 Individualism rips apart the ties that bind society
 Liberal individualism = anarchy

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
Organic society
Anti-revolution

Each generation supposed to preserve society and
government

And to pass on to next generation

Not to rip it apart through liberal or radical
revolutions
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
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Organic society
Anti-revolution
Tradition
Resistance to sudden social and cultural changes
 Tradition almost always better than new ideas
 If change is necessary, make it slow, gradual
 No sudden radical changes

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Organic society
Anti-revolution
Tradition
Strong government power



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To uphold morality, official religion
To defend traditions
To preserve social ranks
Keep people “in their place”
Their version of a proper society
o
o
o
o
Kings with real power
Aristocrats at the top of society
Royalty and aristocrats to dominate political affairs
Some lead, some are led

Some conservatives more extreme than others

Known as reactionaries

More hostile to liberalism


Conservatives, reactionaries only different in
degree
Same basic values and ideas
Revolt of Latin America
Controlled
Inspired
by Spain and Portugal
by Enlightenment, liberalism
Especially
middle-class creoles
Descendants
Creoles
Led
of Europeans, not Indian natives
= Latin American bourgeoisie
by Simon Bolivar




Austrians, Prussians, Russians sought to intervene
To stop revolutions, restore Spanish and
Portuguese authority
US rejected --- Monroe Doctrine
Declared Western hemisphere off limits to
European colonialism

England also rejected European intervention

Supported their right to rebel

But more so ... Wanted those markets available

More interested in economic gains to be made

Than supporting right to revolution

With Spanish and Portuguese power removed

English merchants moved in

Economy basically controlled by English

And later Americans

Latin Americans resented both

Against Ottoman Empire (1821)

The one revolution they all supported

Saw Greece as beginning of western culture

Hated to see it controlled by Muslims
Greek Revolt
Supported
by English, French,
Russian troops
Successful
Greece
1829
now independent monarchy

Despite Greek and Latin American revolutions

Conservatives in Europe remained dominant

Forces of liberalism did not die out

But kept at bay

Tory = conservative party
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Pursued interests of landed elites

Not bourgeoisie, workers, or peasants

Suffrage limited to elites and upper middleclass

Agricultural prices fell after 1815

Parliament passed Corn Laws
o
o
o
o
o
High tariffs on imported grains
Shielded landowners from foreign competition
But gave them excuse to raise food prices
Tariffs benefited landlords…
At the expense of everybody else

Food prices became severe

Middle and lower-class angry

60,000 at demonstration at St Peter’s Field




Put down by military
11 killed
Known as “St Peterloo Massacre”
Indicates conservative rule in England


Government willing to use force
To stop “dangerous rebellions”

Bourbon monarchy restored (Louis XVIII)

Moderate conservative

Did not completely “un-do” the revolution
o
o
o
o
o
o
Maintained equality before law
No special rights for aristocrats
Created legislature
But with very limited suffrage
Conservative, but not completely reactionary
Tried to satisfy all by going in the middle

Liberals angry …. Louis too conservative

Ultraroyalists angry … not conservative enough
o
o
o
o
o
Ultraroyalists = French reactionaries
Not just conservatives opposing additional reform
Wanted to turn the clock back to 1789
To completely, totally “un-do” revolution
Return to Old Order of aristocratic and royal absolutism
Intervention in
the Italian States
Still
not unified nation
Multiple
Largely
Italian states
dominated by Austria
Italian States
Most
had conservative
governments
Censorship
of liberal books
Liberal
rebellions led by the
Carbonari
Austria,
France, Prussia, France
sent troops to prevent

Bourbon dynasty restored by Congress

Ferdinand VII

Yet agreed to accept liberal Constitution 1812

Limited royal power

Created national assembly (“the Cortes”)

Seemed Spain moving towards liberalism

But once secured, Ferdinand VII reneged on promise
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

Abolished constitution, dissolved the Cortes
Censored and persecuted liberals
Liberal rebellion in response
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Ferdinand backed down
Promised (again) to accept liberal reforms
French army put rebellion down
Spain back to royal absolutism
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Germany not a unified nation

Still really a collection of over 30 states

German Confederation

Prussia and Austria

And 36 other, smaller states

Austria and Prussia staunch reactionaries

Problem for them …

Liberalism popular with middle-class

Conservatives rulers sought to repress liberals

Pushed for liberal reforms

And unification of German states
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From 38 conservative states
To 1 united, liberal state
Especially popular with student/professor groups
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

Known as Burschenschaften (“brotherhoods”)
Climaxed 1817 …
300th anniversary of Martin Luther’s Protestant Reformation
Passage of Carlsbad Decrees
Strict censorship
 Government monitoring of universities and libraries
 Dangerous ideas banned

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Powerful empire within German Confederation

Austrians themselves were German

Majority in their empire were not
Magyars (Hungarians)
o Slavs (Serbs, Croats, Czechs, Slovenes, and others)
o Some Italians
o 11 total nationalities within Austrian Empire
o

Non-Germans inspired by French Revolution

Wanted rights, perhaps independence

Attracted to liberalism, nationalism

Threat to ruling authorities of Austria

Nationalism/liberalism repressed, censored

Conservatism dominant as in Prussia
Russian Autocracy
Czar
Alexander I (1801-25)
Czar
= Russian version of “Caesar”
Russia
= most absolutist of all regimes
Autocracy
basically means dictatorship

Czar Alexander I (1801-25)
Support divine right absolutism
 Staunch reactionary
 Very strict censorship
 Arbitrary government power
 Perhaps most absolutist regimes


Decembrist Rebellion 1825



Sought constitutional monarchy
Limits on royal power
Civil liberties in Russia

Crushed

Czar Nicholas I (1825-55)

More autocratic than Alexander

Throughout most of Europe

But liberal voices not silenced

Despite repression, censorship

Most of the middle-class liberals

Not all liberals 100% identical

Disagreed amongst themselves

But united on certain core, liberal principles

Individual rights
Freedom of speech, press, assembly
 freedom from arbitrary arrest
 Due process/civil liberties
 Religious freedom
 Parliamentary system (rather than royal absolutism)
 Some supported republics (destroying monarchy)
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
But most rejected universal suffrage
All men should have rights
 But not privilege of voting
 Preferred suffrage limited to elites and middle-class
 Liberals were NOT democrats


Limited government power
o
o
o
Protect nation from foreign invaders
Police protection of the innocent from violence
Build roads, bridges, necessary infrastructure

Limited government would protect individual rights

And lead to economic boom, prosperity

Liberalism would lead to peace, harmony, prosperity,
growth, freedom

Strongest in US
Bill of Rights
 Free markets, almost laissez-faire
 Limited power of federal government
 Local control of local affairs (“states rights”)
 Civil liberties, gun rights, free speech, religion
 Republic .... no kings or aristocrats
 Big exception…. Slavery


Also rising in popularity

Despite conservative repressions

And efforts to snuff out

Related to, but distinct from, liberalism

Belief that a cultural group = nation

Group that shares common culture
o
o
o
o
o
Language
Food, diet
Folkways and traditions
Religion
Common ancestry/ethnicity

Nation should be free, “self-determination”

From outside control

Used liberal language of rights, freedom

Should either be independent nation

Or autonomous within an empire


Still part of an empire
But free to control local affairs within that empire
Nationalism
Powerful
force
Especially
since so many
ethnic/language
categories
Strong
especially in
Austrian Empire
Multi-ethnic
(many
races) and polyglot (many
languages) empire

Liberals and nationalists opposed conservatism

But so too did early socialists

Socialism NOT the same as classical liberalism

Both saw conservatism as the enemy

But did not see each other as allies

Inspired by plight of workers

Vision …. But all failed
o
o
o
o
o
Abolition of private property (and businesses)
Cooperation rather than economic competition
Share resources
Spread wealth equitably
Fourier, Robert Owen, Blanc most prominent

King Charles X, staunch reactionary (ultraroyalist)
Abolished freedom of speech and press
o Dissolved national assembly
o Ruling as royal absolutist
o As if French Revolution never happened
o

Middle and lower classes felt oppressed

Revolution 1830
French Revolution (1830)
Led
by bourgeois liberals
Crowned
Liberal
Louis Philippe, Duke of Orleans
monarchy
Nicknamed
the July Monarchy
Classical liberalism in France
Royal authority limited
 Individual rights
 Free trade, capitalism
 Low taxes
 Suffrage for elites and upper-middle class only


Ultraroyalists and conservatives hated

Hated revolution

And liberalism
But some liberals dissatisfied
Not liberal enough
 Especially for lower-middle class
 And working-class, peasants
 Wanted extension of suffrage

o
Dissatisfied liberals complained
o
Censored, repressed
o
Saw Louis Philippe as just as bad as Charles X
o
Attempts at revolution, but failed
o
FYI… Backdrop of the novel and musical Les
Miserables

Formerly the Austrian Netherlands

But now part of Kingdom of Netherlands

Inspired by nationalism


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
Belgian culture different from Dutch
Spoke French, not Dutch
Catholic, not Calvinist
Different culture, should have different nation
Seceded 1830, independent monarchy of Belgium



Constitutional monarchy
Individual liberties
Liberal as well

1830 elections

Whigs in power (liberal party)

England grew more and more liberal

Pulled out of Concert of Europe

No longer in favor of killing liberalism


Pulled out of Concert of Europe
Full religious toleration



Pulled out of Concert of Europe
Full religious toleration
Reform Bill of 1832
Right to vote extended to middle-class
o No longer just aristocrats
o Not total voting rights, but improvement
o




Pulled out of Concert of Europe
Full religious toleration
Reform Bill of 1832
Strong anti-slavery movement
Abolished slavery in colonies
o Strong pressure on world to stop slave trade
o





Pulled out of Concert of Europe
Full religious toleration
Reform Bill of 1832
Strong anti-slavery movement
Repeal of the Corn Laws

Corn Laws = tariffs on imported grain
Resulted in high food prices
o Only benefitted wealthy land owners
o

Repealed in 1846

Liberal free trade, free market

Over mercantilism






Pulled out of Concert of Europe
Full religious toleration
Reform Bill of 1832
Strong anti-slavery movement
Repeal of the Corn Laws
Property rights

Some laws against child labor

And to improve safety conditions of mines

But businesses largely free from government







Pulled out of Concert of Europe
Full religious toleration
Reform Bill of 1832
Strong anti-slavery movement
Repeal of the Corn Laws
Free markets, little government regulation
Low taxes

David Ricardo

Richard Malthus

John Stuart Mill

Liberalism in northwest Europe

Conservatism in eastern, southern

Working-class rejected both

Nationalist ambitions still powerful

No sense of unity

Extreme political, social tension
Revolutions of 1848
All
came to a head in 1848
Revolutions
throughout Europe in same year

Some liberals opposed July Monarchy

Too repressive

Severe economic downturn, hardship

Overthrow Louis Philippe

July Monarchy abolished

Declared 2nd French Republic





Universal male suffrage
Welfare for poor
Restrictions on business
National workshops – guaranteed jobs for all
Major disaster
Louis Napoleon
Louis
But
2nd
Napoleon elected president
declared himself emperor (1851)
French Empire
Cause
of the Revolution of 1848 died

Liberals in Austria

Some temporary successes



Abolished feudalism and serfdom
Overturned censorship
Austria becoming a constitutional monarchy like England

But conservatives returned to power soon

Liberal reforms came to nothing

Nationalist rebellions in Empire

Slavs, Magyars (Hungarians), northern Italians

Some sought home rule, others independence

But conservative rulers able to regain control

Nationalist rebellions defeated

Liberal bourgeoisie against conservative king

Wanted German unification (except Austria)

And liberal constitution

Seemed that liberals were winning
Writing constitution for a united Germany
Liberalism
 Limited royal power
 Civil liberties
 Free markets
 Religious toleration


But King Frederick William IV able to rally

Regained control

Liberal efforts repressed

Frankfurt Assembly rejected

Revolution of 1848 died

Not unified into single nation

Various Italian provinces
Some independent kingdoms (Piedmont-Sardinia)
 Parts under Austrian rule
 Parts under Papal Estates
 Various other Italian states

Guiseppe Mazzini
Unification
But
efforts
failed
Austrians
Italy
regained control of northern
Pope
put down rebellions in Papal
Estates
Local
Italian rulers controlled south

Broke out throughout Europe

But little long-term change

Why so many failures?

Revolutionaries not united
Not everybody rebelled for the same reason
 Some were middle-class liberals
 Some were working-class radicals
 United against same enemy
 But did not share common vision for the future


Nationalists not united




Nationalists demanded rights for themselves
But unwilling to extend to others
Hungarians wanted autonomy from Austria
But refused to grant freedoms to their minorities
(Slavic peoples living in Hungary)

New cultural movement

Art, music, philosophy

Focused on feeling, emotion, intuition

Rejected Enlightenment focus on reason, logic

Put heart over the head

Individualism




Rejected social norms
Dressed in avant-garde fashion
Sort of like 19th century hippies
Wanted “freedom” from social expectations

Nationalist literature
Books that emphasized heroes in a nation’s history
 Stressed heroism, bravery
 Nation’s ties to its past culture
 Grimm brothers (Germany)
 Hans Christian Anderson (Denmark)
 Sir Walter Scott (Scotland)


Gothic novels
Dark novels, emphasis on the bizarre
 Raised warnings of science
 If reason went too far… disaster could occur
 Edgar Allen Poe (American poet)
 Mary Shelley (Frankenstein)
 Robert Louis Stevenson (Dr Jekyll and Mr Hyde)


Love of nature, especially in poetry
Wild, mysterious, pristine
 Not knowable as Enlightenment scientists wrote
 Nature not to be conquered and figured out
 To be left alone, marveled at
 Percy Byssshe Shelley
 William Wordsworth
 Lord Byron


Emotion in art and music




Not interested in appeal to logic (as in 18th century)
Rather, appeals to the heart, emotion
Beethoven
Berlioz

Religious revivalism
“Back to church” movement
 In both Catholic and Protestant nations
 More emotional religion
 Not as learned, logical
 More emotional sermons and rituals
