Transcript Modern Europe II

Modern Europe II
Unit 3 – Nation-States, 1859-1871
Rise of the Nation-State
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From 1859-1871, there is the consolidation of a number
of nation-states in Europe
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Includes two new countries: Italy and Germany
Creation of the dual monarchy of Austria-Hungary
Radical changes in Russia
What is a nation-state?
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Where the boundaries of the nation correspond to the
geographical boundaries
People share the same language and culture
May share common heritage or history
Created new ties between the government and the people
Rise of the Nation-State
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State of the state prior to 1860
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Nations were fragmented into smaller countries or large
empires encompassed numerous nations
Two main nation-states in Europe were Great Britain and
France
Smaller ones existed (e.g., Portugal and Switzerland) but were
not influential
Causes of the development of nation-states
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Rise in nationalism
New technology especially in communication
Wars were necessary as they broke the choke-holds of major
powers such as Austria and Russia
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Crimean War (1854-1856)
Crimean War (1854-1856)
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Crimean War would break the power of both Austria and
Russia
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They were the last countries holding onto the old style
governments and the Congress System
Eastern Question
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Ottoman Empire was losing its grip on provinces in
southeastern Europe
With the slow decline of the Ottomans, who would benefit
from their fall?
Strategic location militarily and economically
Russia wanted to step into the power vacuum
Britain and Austria were hoping to keep the Empire intact
Crimean War (1854-1856)
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Cause of the war
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France had considered itself “sovereign authority” in the
region for many years
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Mainly religious
Both France and Russia wanted to be the protectors of
religious minorities in Jerusalem and the Holy Land
Goes back to Treaty of Küçük Kaynarca (1774)
Abdülmecid I (1839-1861)
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Ottoman Sultan decided to end the agreement with France
Instead wanted Russian influence
Crimean War (1854-1856)
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France responded with a show of force
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Abdülmecid negotiated a new treaty with France
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Sent in a number of ships along with a large payment
Granted France the “sovereign authority”
Catholic Church was the governing Christian religion
Russian Orthodox Church lost control of the Church of the
Nativity
Russian response
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Nicolas I sent in Russian troops into Ottoman territories of
the Danubian Principalities (Moldavia and Walachia)
Crimean War (1854-1856)
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Britain, France, Austria, and Prussia wanted to prevent
war
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Turks declared war on Russia (October 23, 1853)
Battle of Sinop (November 30, 1853)
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Did not want Russia to gain a foothold in the east
Britain moved part of its fleet into the Black Sea just in case
Abdülmecid was willing to compromise but Nicolas was not
Turks lost a good chunk of its fleet
British and French response
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Afraid of the quick advances made by Russia
Sent ultimatum to Nicolas requesting withdrawal of troops
from Danubian Principalities
Crimean War (1854-1856)
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Britain and France declared war on March 28, 1854
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Battle of Balaclava (October 25, 1854)
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Both countries invaded Russia via Crimean peninsula
British led a charge using light cavalry into the “Valley of
Death”
Were slaughtered by Russian forces
Inspired the poem “Charge of the Light Brigade” by Tennyson
Austrian response
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Russia hoped to get Austria as allies
Austria was fearful of Russia
Did not declare war but did not declare neutrality
Also demanded Russia to withdraw its troops
Crimean War (1854-1856)
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Nicolas died on March 2, 1855
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Successor was Alexander II who sued for peace
Treaty of Paris (March 30, 1856)
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Outcome of the Congress of Paris
Designed to maintain the “integrity of the Ottoman Empire”
Danubian Principalities would stay under Ottoman control
Black Sea would remain neutral and demilitarized
Russia lost all gains in the Danube region
Romania becomes an independent nation
France continued to hold the right of protection to the
Christians in the Ottoman Empire
Crimean War (1854-1856)
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First “modern” war
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Extensive use of rifled muskets and underwater mines
Use of trench warfare
Railroads and telegraphs allowed for easier transport and
communications
Was a “public war”
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Numerous correspondents and photojournalists covered it
Most famous was Roger Fenton (1819-1869)
Made heroes out of soldiers and army nurses
One of the most famous was Florence Nightingale (1820–
1910)
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Captain Dames of
the Royal Artillery
(1855)
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By Roger Fenton
Italian Unification
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Two visions of Italian statehood
Republican ideal
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Started by Mazzini in 1848
Giuseppi Garibaldi took up the mantel
Hoped to achieve national unification through a popular
movement
Constitutional monarchy
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This was favored by moderate nationalists
Wanted economic and political reforms without democracy
Pinned their hopes on Charles Albert, king of PiedmontSardinia
When he died, they turned to his son,Victor Emmanuel II
(1849–1861)
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Giuseppi Garibaldi
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(1807–1882)
Italian Unification
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By 1860, it was clear that the republican model was not
going to work
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Papacy refused to go along with the ideals of Mazzini and
Garibaldi
Therefore, the pope would not outwardly support unification
Also, it would be difficult to kick Austria out of Italy without
outside help
The burden would fall on Camillo Benso, conte di Cavour
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Was the Prime Minister under Victor Emmanuel
Did not like the republicans but was willing to work with them
Brought Sardinia into the Crimean War to gain alliance with
France
Italian Unification
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Reforms made by Cavour
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Pursued pragmatic reforms guided by the state
Promoted economic expansion and a modern transportation
infrastructure
Reformed the currency
Working to unify Italy
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Relied on diplomacy
Cultivated an alliance with France in order to drive the
Austrians from Italy
Went to war against Austria in1859 with the help of the French
Piedmont-Sardinia annexed Lombardy
Tuscany, Parma, and Modena voted to join as well
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Camillo Benso,
conte di Cavour
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(1810–1861)
Italian Unification
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There were three Italian states in 1860
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Northern Italian kingdom under Victor Emmanuel
Papal States
Kingdom of Two Sicilies
Bringing in the Two Sicilies
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King Francis II faced a widespread peasant revolt in 1860
Garibaldi used the opportunity to push his ideas
He landed in Sicily in May 1860 with his volunteers known as
“The Thousand”
Gained widespread support for unification
Toppled Francis in November by taking Naples
Italian Unification
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Garibaldi planned to march to Rome
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This would bring him in confrontation with not only the pope
but French forces as well
Garibaldi took Sicily in the name of King Victor Emmanuel
In order to avoid an international crisis, Cavour and
Garibaldi were willing to work together
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Cavour worried that Garibaldi would bring French or Austrian
intervention
Cavour preferred that unification take place quickly, without
domestic turmoil
The king ordered Garibaldi to cede military authority
Italian Unification
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First Italian Parliament (1861)
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Third Italian War of Independence (1866)
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Assembly ordered by Victor Emmanuel
Victor Emmanuel was named King of Italy on March 17
Italy was able to take Venetia from Austria
Taking Rome
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Garibaldi attempted to take Rome in 1867 but was defeated by
French and Papal forces
With the outbreak of the Franco-Prussian War in 1870, France
removed its troops from Rome
This allowed Garibaldi another opportunity
Italian soldiers occupied Rome in September 1870
Italian Unification
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Rome voted to become part of Italy on October 2, 1870
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Status of the pope
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Did not become the official capital until July 1871
Law of Papal Guarantees (May 13, 1871) made the pope
subject to the king of Italy and not an independent sovereign
Pope Pius IX rejected it and declared himself prisoner in the
Vatican
All the popes until 1929 rejected being part of Italy
Problems with unification
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Parliamentary government with limited suffrage
Widening gap between industrial north and rural south
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Unification of Italy
German Unification
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In 1850, German states were reeling from failure
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Due to the failure of the 1848 revolutions and the Frankfurt
Assembly
The main powers had been restored
The nationalism movement was stunned
Realpolitik
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Focus on more realistic types of governments than one based
on ideals.
Strong ties to the realism movement of the middle 19th
century
Became the watchword in the German states in the 1850s and
60s
German Unification
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Frederick William of Prussia (1840–1861)
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Still was staunchly anti-revolution
Granted a Prussian constitution with bicameral parliament
However, the power remained in the hands of the wealthy
Voters were divided into three classes based on the amount of
taxes they paid
The wealthy classes had a much larger degree of voting power
than a common working man
During this period there was an economic boom
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Due to six fold output of both coal and iron
Led to the growth of the Prussian middle class
German Unification
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Growing liberalism
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Effects on the military
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Active liberal intelligentsia
Liberal civil service
King wanted to expand the standing army and take military
matters out of parliamentary control
Industrialists did not like the large standing army nor the
Junkers who were officers
Opponents saw the king perhaps creating a personal army
King Wilhelm I (1861-1888)
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Was caught in the struggle with the Diet
Hired Otto von Bismarck as his Prime minister
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Otto von Bismarck
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(1815-1898)
German Unification
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Otto von Bismarck (1815–1898)
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Prime Minister from 1862-1873
Prussian Junker and defender of the monarchy
Opposed liberalism and nationalism
Ideas on unification
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Believed that some sort of union was inevitable and that
Prussia ought to take the initiative
Was going to use both diplomacy and war to achieve this
“The great questions of the time will not be resolved by
speeches and majority decisions—that was the great mistake
of 1848 and 1849—but by iron and blood.”
German Unification
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Parliamentary crisis in 1862
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Diet refused to pass appropriations for the military and the
country’s budge
Technically, the government would not be able to collect taxes
without approval from the Diet
Bismarck decided to have the government collect the taxes
based on the budget of 1861
House of Deputies stated it could not work with Bismarck
He dissolved the Diet in 1863
Bismarck’s foreign policy
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Played the “nationalist card” to pre-empt his liberal opponents
Believed that the German Confederation was no longer useful
Called for the expansion of Prussian territory
German Unification
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Dispute over Schleswig and Holstein
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First War of Schleswig (1848-1851)
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Denmark attempted to annex the Duchy of Schleswig
Led to war between Prussia and Denmark
Prussia lost and was forced to withdraw
London Protocol (1852)
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Both territories contained large German populations
The two duchies of Schleswig and Holstein would be joined by
a person with the King of Denmark
In November 1863, Frederick VII of Denmark died
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He had no children
Led to the dispute over the succession Schleswig and Holstein
German Unification
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Christian IX of Denmark (1863-1906)
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German Confederation was against the continuing union
Signed the November Constitution making Schleswig part of
Denmark
Violated the London Protocol and went against the idea of a
“greater Germany”
Second Schleswig War (February–October 1864)
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German Diet declared an all-German war against Denmark
Prussia joined the war with Austria
Prussia wanted control of both Schleswig and Holstein
Denmark lost and gave up those two territories
German Unification
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Gastein Convention (August 14, 1865)
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Problems with Austria
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Prussia gained control of Schleswig
Austria gained control of Holstein
Bismarck now wanted to get rid of Austrian influence
Already problems with Austrian administration of Holstein
In 1866, Austria backed out of the Gastein Convention
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Claimed that only the German Diet could determine who
would control Schleswig and Holstein
Prussia responded by invading Holstein
German Unification
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The Seven Weeks’ War (1866)
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Peace of Prague (1866)
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Prussians used new technological innovations such as the
needle-gun to its advantage
Bismarck kept the war short to keep it limited to Austria
Austria gave up Schleswig-Holstein and Venetia
Austria agreed to dissolve the German Confederation
Bismarck created the Northern German Confederation
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Wrote a new constitution
King of Prussia was the head of this new Confederation
Included a bicameral legislature
Weakened the liberal opposition
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Territory
annexed by
Prussia (light
blue) in 1866
German Unification
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In 1870, Leopold of Hohenzollern was offered the job of
Spanish monarch
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Ems Dispatch
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Was a cousin of Wilhelm I
Napoleon III convinced Leopold to withdraw his acceptance
Then went on to tell Wilhelm that no other Hohenzollern
should become candidate for the Spanish throne
Based on a telegram from Wilhelm to Bismarck
Bismarck reprinted a condensed version
Main point: France demanded certain actions of Prussia under
the threat of war
Both French and Prussians were angered over this
France declared war on Prussia (July 19, 1870)
German Unification
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The Franco-Prussian War (1870–1871)
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Quickly showed Prussian military superiority
Prussia used railways and new steel artillery (Krupp cannon) to
its advantage
Did not become a European-wide war
German states rallied to Prussia’s side
No European powers came to the aid of France
Napoleon captured at the Battle of Sedan (September 2, 1870)
France responded with the creation of the Third Republic two
days later
New French government refused to capitulate
Prussian troops laid siege to Paris for four months
German Unification
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Declaration of the German Empire (January 18, 1871)
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Paris finally fell on January 28, 1871
Treaty of Frankfurt (May 1871)
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Made by Bismarck in the Hall of Mirrors at Versailles
Prussian king would receive the hereditary title of emperor
Returned Alsace-Lorraine to Germany
Required France to pay an indemnity of 5 billion francs (~ $375
million)
Recognized Wilhelm I as the German Emperor
Military occupation of parts of France by Prussian troops
Bismarck also called for the creation of a new French
government elected by universal male suffrage
German Unification
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New German government
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Constitution similar to Northern German Confederation
Allowed for universal male suffrage of the Reichstag
Minister were answerable only to the emperor
Prussia gained the most out of the creation of the empire
Why was Bismarck successful?
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A “revolution from above”
Master of diplomacy
Was willing to go to war to get what he wanted
Gave enough reforms to placate the liberals
Used nationalistic movement to his own advantage
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German Empire (1871)
Dual Monarchy of Austria-Hungary
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After 1848, the Austrian empire is still a diverse group
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Habsburg rulers had to find a way of holding their empire
together amidst the different nationalistic uprising
Franz Joseph attempted to hold the empire together
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Passed a series of decrees
Adopted of German as the national language
Brought an end serfdom (1848) and attempted to modernize
the empire
New and more-uniform legal system
Rationalized taxation
All these decrees did was alienate the non-German peoples
Dual Monarchy of Austria-Hungary
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Ethnic relations grew more tense in the 1850s and 1860s
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Compromise of 1867
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The “nationalities” protested the powerlessness of their Diets,
military repression, and cultural disenfranchisement
The ones most unhappy were the Magyars
Negotiated between the Germans and the Magyars
Created a Dual Monarchy with two countries: Austria and
Hungary
What they shared
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Common system of taxation, common army, made foreign and
military policy together
Both were joined by one Habsburg ruler
Both would send delegates to a common ministry
Dual Monarchy of Austria-Hungary
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How they were different
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New system was not democratic
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Internal and constitutional affairs were separated
Each had its own constitution and government
German would be the official language in Austria, Magyar in
Hungary
Capital of Austria would be Vienna, capital of Hungary would be
Budapest
Austria did not get universal male suffrage until 1907
Hungary did not get it until after World War I
Power was in the hands of the wealthy landowners
No national unification in Habsburg lands
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Alexander II
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(1855-1881)
Liberalization in Tsarist Russia
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Alexander II (1855-1881)
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“Slavophiles”
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Not a liberal but realized changes needed to be made
Believed that Russia had its own unique destiny and following
western Europe would do more harm than good
Wanted to preserve Russia’s distinctive features
Idealized traditional Russian culture
Rejected Western secularism, commercialism, and bourgeois
culture
“Westernizers”
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Called for adoption of European science, technology, and
education
Called for liberalism and individual right
Liberalization in Tsarist Russia
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Russian autocracy
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Power in Russia was solely in the hands of the tsar
Did not rule by law
Instead ruled through decree (ukase) and military might
Tsar pick and chose what western ideas and industry would be
adopted by Russia
Serfdom in Russia
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Similar to western serfdom
Peasants were tied either to the land as farmers or worked in
factories
Had to pay their lords certain dues and perform certain duties
Russian government did not interfere in the relationship
between a serf and his lord
Liberalization in Tsarist Russia
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Calls for an end to serfdom
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Was no longer seen as profitable
Also created poor, uneducated workers that were of no benefit
to the Russian empire
Intelligentsia wanted to bring western ideas into fruition
Alexander was willing to implement reforms
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Eased up on censorship
Allowed for academic free speech
Allowed travel outside of Russia
Enforced universal male conscription in the military
How to bring an end to serfdom without throwing the entire
country out of whack?
Liberalization in Tsarist Russia
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The Emancipation Decree of 1861
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Serfs were no longer subject to their owners but subjects of
the government
Granted legal rights to 22 million serfs
Gave former serfs title to a portion of the land (half the arable
land in Russia)
Law granted land to the peasant commune (mir), not individual
serfs
Required the state to compensate landowners
Newly liberated serfs had to pay installments for their land
Land was not divided equally so peasants were not equal
Liberalization in Tsarist Russia
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End of serfdom led to greater legal reforms
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Trials were now public
Legal representation for those in court
Class distinctions were abolished in the court
Brought in jury system similar to England
Greater representation
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Created the Zemstvos, which were local councils
Designed to govern rural areas and large towns
Elected by the people
Dealt with various issues including education and public works
Refused to create a nation-wide representative body
Liberalization in Tsarist Russia
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Russia expanded to both the east and south
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After a rebellion in Poland in 1863, Alexander pulled away
from reforms
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Invaded and conquered independent Islamic kingdoms along
the Silk Road
Founded Siberian city of Vladivostok in 1860
In most cases, Russia did not assimilate the populations of new
territories
Started paring down reforms
Revolutionaries were not pleased with the reforms
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Many hoped to bring some form of socialism to Russia
Led by Alexander Herzen
Liberalization in Tsarist Russia
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Growth in Nihilist (anarchist) movement
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Led by Mikhail Bakunin and Sergey Nechayev
Created secret terroristic societies, like Narodnaya Volya (the
People’s Will)
Alexander responded by turning to the liberals
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Hoped to staunch the growth of radicalism
Allowed for free speech of political topics
Disbanded the secret police set up by his father
Planned to implement parliamentary reform
Signed edict on March 13, 1881 to create a nationally elected
parliament (Duma)
Liberalization in Tsarist Russia
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Assassination attempts
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1866 – Failed attempt
1873 – Five shots fired by revolutionary Alexander Soloviev
but missed
1879 – Failed attempt by the People’s Will to blow up the
Tsar’s train
1880 – Bomb exploded in the Winter Palace; Alexander was
late for dinner so was unharmed
On March 13, 1881 the People’s Will succeeded
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Managed to blow up his carriage in St. Petersburg
There were three bombers along the route, two succeeded
Liberalization in Tsarist Russia
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Assassination hurt the reform movement
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Caused reactionary policies in Russia against revolutionaries
The Duma would not meet until 1905
Under Alexander III (1881-1894), there was the suppression of
civil liberties and the reinstatement of the secret police
This was carried on by Nicolas II (1894-1917)
Even the Jews were affected
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Rumors spread that the Jews were responsible for the
assassination
Over 200 anti-Jewish pogroms took place between 1881-1884
May Laws (1882) prohibited Jews from living in rural areas with
less than 10,000 people
More restrictions were implemented over next 30 years
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Assassination of Alexander II