Transcript File

The Unification of Italy
The progressive dissolution of the Concert of Europe and the
lessening faith in the necesity of preserving the Vienna
settlement, (partly because states had in most cases been
successful in suppressing revolution and were therfore not as
fearful as before of the prospect of new revolutionary uprisings
with the potential to overthrow the status quo), was to
encourage further dramatic change in Europe in the years
following the Crimean War, most importantly to the substantial
re-drawing of the European political map following the national
unification of Italy and Germany.
The Italian uprisings of 1848 & 1849, led largely by romantic
republicans, had failed to achieve the objective of Italian
unification. Yet, only a decade later, to an important extent as a
consequence of the leadership and diplomatic manouveurs of
Count Cavour of Piedmont, a new, united kingdom of Italy had
been successfully established.
The Italian Peninsula – post 1848
Count Camilo di Cavour
Cavour appointed Prime Minister of Piedmont in 1852 by new
king Victor Emmanuel II. Cavour was relatively liberal, but also
v. loyal to the monarch.
Cavour supported the national unification of Italy so long as it
was unified under Piedmontese leadership. To this end he
supported establishment of the pro-Piedmontese ‘National
Society’ in many different Italian states.
Cavour realized Piedmont could only defeat Austria with the
support of a Great Power - specifically he saw France, now
under the leadership of the pro-Italian Napoleon III as a
potential ally *
Cavour’s first important diplomatic move was to take Piedmont
into the Crimean War, therby increasing Piedmont’s prestige
amongst the Italian people and gaining the good-will/respect of
Britain and France
* Keep in mind that Napoleon III was also someone seeking fame and
glory, hoping to return France to the great and glorious days of his
uncle, and he too saw Piedmont as a potential ally vis-a-vis Austria
The ‘Pact of Plombieres’
In July 1858 Napoleon III & Count Cavour met at
Plombieres-les-bains where they formulated a
secret deal, signed later in December 1858 &
known as the ‘Pact of Plombieres’
The Pact was basically an agreement whereby
France promised to help Piedmont against
Austria, and in return for its help would receive
the provinces of Nice & Savoy from Piedmont.
In line with the agreement, Cavour mobilized his
army on the border of Austrian controlled
Lombardy
The Rise of Piedmont
Cavour’s decision to mobilize on the border of Lombardy was
consciously designed to antagonize Austria, in the hope of
finding a pretext for going to war. Unaware that Piedmont was
in secret agreement with France, Austria gave Piedmont an
ultimatum, which Piedmont then rejected, leading to Austria
declaring war and appearing the aggressor.
With the backing of France, Piedmont heavily defeated Austrian
forces in the battles of Magenta & Solferino in June 1859, took
over Lombardy and was on the verge of occupying Venetia too.
Meanwhile, encouraged by the defeat of Austria, revolutionary
uprisings calling for Italian national unification under
Piedmontese leadership were initiated throughout much of the
Italian peninsula. Everything appeared to be going right for
Cavour...
The Treaty of Villafranca
Then, to Cavour’s surprise and great disapointment, Napoleon
III had a change of heart, and turned around to sign a Peace
Treaty with Austria on July 11th 1859, the Treaty of Villafranca.
According to the Treaty of Villafranca, France would withdraw
its support from Piedmont and Piedmont would get only
Lombardy, not Venetia.
Why had Napoleon III abandoned Cavour? Perhaps a
combination of the following:
- He lacked resolve (unlike his uncle)
- He feared the entry of Prussia into the war on the side of
Austria
- He was becomming concerned that Piedmont might
become too powerful a southern neighbour for France
Garibaldi
For a while Cavour was helpless, but the forces of Italian
nationalism had been set in motion and by the end of the year
several central Italian states had voted in plebiscites to unite with
Piedmont.
Then, in May 1860, the veteran republican nationalist Giuseppe
Garibaldi, (who had been a leader of the nationalist uprisings of
1848), landed in Sicily taking over the island held by the king of
Naples and later proceeding to take Naples itself.
Fearing that Italy might now unite as a republic, Cavour preempted Garibaldi’s movement further north. He sent his troops
south, in the process taking over control of the remaining central
Italian states controlled by the pope (i.e. the papal states), but
being careful to avoid the region around Rome.
Cavour’s caution regarding Rome was a consequence of 2 factor
- He didn’t want to offend Catholics
- Rome was protected by French troops
The Kingdom of Italy
There was now the potentail for war between Cavour &
Garibaldi’s respective forces, the former defending a united
Italian kingdom under the rule of King Victor Emmanuel II, the
latter wishing to see a united Italy become a republic. Garibaldi,
however, apparently so as not to jeopardize the national
unification of Italy by fighting against the forces of Piedmont,
conceded that a united Italy could be a kingdom and in late
1860 the people of Naples and Sicily voted in a plebiscite to
unite with Piedmont.
On 17th March 1861, Victor Emmanuel II was crowned the king
of the newly united Italy. Less than 3 months later Cavour had
died. But for 2 major exceptions (Venetia & Rome), Cavour had
lived to see his dream come true.
The Formation of a United Italy (1)
The Formation of a United Italy (2)
German Unification
The unification of Germany could be
regarded as the most significant
European development till World
War I, one that greatly affected the
political, economical & military
balance of power. It was achieved
largely through military power &
diplomatic manouevres, rather than
through the idealist liberalism of
participants in the earlier Frankfurt
Assembly. The leading role was
played by Otto von Bismarck, the
great Prussian statesman who had
been appointed Prime Minister in
Sept. 1862 by the new King of
Prussia William I.
OTTO VON BISMARCK
Otto von Bismarck (1)
Bismarck was more of a Prussian nationalist
rather than a German nationalist, who aimed to
strengthen Prussia & make sure the people
remained loyal to their king and conservative
institutions rather than follow the liberals who
had begun to dominate the Prussian parliament.
For Bismarck successful politics was not based
on ideals or principles or debates or
democratically made decisions, but on the
effective excercise of power.
Otto von Bismarck (2)
“The great questions of the
day will not be decided by
speeches & majority
decisions – that was the
mistake of 1848-1849 –
but by iron & blood.”
German Territorial Unification
3 Wars in the Process of
German Unification
Through the process of 3 major wars in less
than a decade, Bismarck ended up
engineering the unification of Germany
Prussia+Austria vs. Denmark  1864
Austro-Prussian War  1866
Franco-Prussian War  1870-71
War with Denmark - 1864
War with Denmark began as a result of the Schleswig-Holstein
Problem. These two duchies, though not officially part of the
Danish state had come under the domination of Denmark even
though they had substantial German populations (a majority in
Holstein) and though Holstein was a member of the Bund.
When in 1863 Denmark tried to annex these territories
Germans everywhere were outraged and the call rose for a
pan-German war against Denmark. Bismarck resisted this call
because he didn’t want the smaller German states to gain
prestige/credit, and instead arranged for thw war with Denmark
to be fought by Prussia in alliance with Austria.
Denmark was quickly defeated & in the Convention of Gastein it
was agreed that Austria would administer Holstein & Prussia
would administer Schleswig.
Austro-Prussian War of 1866
Bismark now looked for an opportunity to attack Austria, he needed to
develop the right circumstances. First he purposefully increased tensions
between the two states over the administration of Shleswig-Holstein,
increasing these tensions further when he felt that international
circumstances had become suitable.
Bismarck had already gained friendship of Russia by supporting the Russian
suppression of a new uprising in Poland in 1863. He now convinced France
to remain neutral in a war with Austria and made a deal with Italy in April
1866, promising it Venetia if it gave its backing also.
When in June 1866 Austria appealed to the Bund over Prussian activities in
Schleswig-Holstein, Bismarck declared that according to Treaty of Gastein
the issue was between the two great powers, not a matter for the Bund, and
indeed a new German confederation should be formed, one that this time
excluded Austria. Bismrack (as he had planned), had tested Austrian
patience too much, and the Austrians now declared war against Prussia.
Known as the ‘Seven Weeks War’, Austria was quite rapidly defeated by the
superior Prussian military forces (and technology – including, for example,
the ‘needle gun’)
The Treaty of Prague & the Results
of the Austro-Prussian War
The outcome of the Austro-Prussian War was determined in the
Treaty of Prague, signed between Prussia and Austria on
August 23rd 1866. Accordingly:
1) Austria was to give Venetia to Italy
2) Prussia annexed several German states which had backed
Austria in the war (incl. Hannover, Hesse, Nassau & Frankfurt)
3) A North German Confederation, dominated by Prussia and
headed by the Prussian king was formed
4) Austria promised not to get involved in German affairs
5) Prussia’s (& Bismarck’s) prestige was further enhanced.
Greater numbers of Germans now looked to Prussia for
leadership and popular support in Prussia shifted from the
liberals towards the conservative administration of Bismarck
Crisis of Succession to the
Spanish Throne
Bismarck’s final initiative for the unification of Germany cam
with his finding of a pretext to go to war against France (which
was becomming increasingly concerned by the growing power
of Prussia). Bismarck’s excuse was related to the succession to
the Spanish throne.
Spanish queen Isabella had been overthrown by a military coup
in 1868, but for almost 2 years the Spaniards could not agree
on a suitable replacement as monarch. The Spanish eventually
chose Prince Leopold who accepted the offer on June 19th
1870.
What was special about Leopold was that he was a member of
the Hohenzollern family, the royal family ruling Prussia. For
France his monarchy in Spain was completely unacceptable.
The French did not want another neighbouring state ruled by
the Hohenzollern family.
The Ems Telegram (1)
French ambassador Count Vincent Benedetti was sent to see
Prussian king William I at a place called Ems to resolve the
issue. They had civilized gentlemany discussions, but the issue
was not yet resolved.
On the 12th July Leopold’s father withdrew his son’s candidacy
for the Spanish throne on behalf of his son. But, not yet
satisfied, Benedetti was sent to meet the king again to ask for
secure guarantees that there would never again be another
Hohenzollern candidate. Even though there was no intention to
support another Hohenzollern candidacy, this demand, William
I said was not possible to accept.
A telegram, later infamously called the ‘Ems Telegram’ was
then sent to Bismarck to explain what had passed.
The Ems Telegram (2)
While conversation between the ambassador and the king had
been quite open and frank, it was still civil. Yet Bismarck, the
opportunist that he was, saw a chance in this to create an
excuse for war with France.
Bismarck noticed that by slightly editing the text of the telegram
that he had received, and then leaking it to the press, he could
make a war almost unavoidable.
By playing with the words of the text, Bismarck made it appear
as if the telegram had spoken of a very hostile meeting where
the king had been very offensive to the representative of the
French government.
When the telegram, as edited by Bismarck, was releasd to the
public, Germans felt pride in the king’s tough stance, while the
French felt that their national honour had been attacked.
Tensions and pressures built-up & on the 19th of July 1870
France declared war ... Just what Bismarck had wanted!!!
Facsimile of the Abeken Text and
Bismarck's editing.
The Abeken Text:
Ems, July 13, 1870.
To THE FEDERAL CHANCELLOR, COUNT BISMARCK, No. 61 EOD. 3:10 P.M.
(STATION EMS: RUSH!)
His Majesty the King writes to me: "M. Benedetti intercepted me on the
Promenade in order to demand of me most insistently that I should authorize him
to telegraph immediately to Paris that I shall obligate myself for all future time
never again to give my approval to the candidacy of the Hohenzollerns should it
be renewed. I refused to agree to this, the last time somewhat severely, informing
him that one dare not and cannot assume such obligations à tout jamais.
Naturally, I informed him that I had received no news as yet, and since he had
been informed earlier than I by way of Paris and Madrid he could easily
understand that my Government was once again out of the matter."
Since then His Majesty has received a dispatch from the Prince [Charles Anthony].
As His Majesty informed Count Benedetti that he was expecting news from the
Prince, His Majesty himself, in view of the above-mentioned demand and in
consonance with the advice of Count Eulenburg and myself, decided not to
receive the French envoy again but to inform him through an adjutant that His
Majesty had now received from the Prince confirmation of the news which
Benedetti had already received from Paris, and that he had nothing further to say
to the Ambassador. His Majesty leaves it to the judgment of Your Excellency
whether or not to communicate at once the new demand by Benedetti and its
rejection to our ambassadors and to the press. [Signed] A[beken] 13.7.70
The Franco-Prussian War of 1870-71
With nationalist passions aroused by the dispute
with France, the southern German states now
joined forces with the Northern German
Confederation led by Prussia.
The French armies were destroyed relatively
quickly, though Paris continued to resist till Jan.
1871.
Napoleon III was captured by the Prussians
following the Battle of Sedan in Sept. 1870 and
eventually sent into exile in England.
The German Emperor
During the war, often under public pressure,
leaders of the southern German states had
called upon William I to become emperor of a
united, but federal Germany, in which they would
maintain some authority within their own
territories. On 18th Jan. 1871, William I was
crowned emperor of a united Germany in the
famous ‘Hall of Mirrors’ in the Palace of
Versailles, which had been home to generations
of French monarchs, (and which therefore was
an especially humiliating occassion for the
French – one which they did not forget! – n.b.
They sought revenge for this after WWI)
Outcomes of the
Franco-Prussian War
Aside from the key outcome of the formation of a
united German national state, and the exile of
Napoleon III, the war had certain other significant
consequences:
In the Treaty of Frankfurt the French were made to
accept the payment of reparations and to give the
long-to-be disputed territories of Alsace and Lorraine
to Germany
German forces of liberalism were outstaged by the
conservative forces led by Bismarck
A 3rd republic was declared in France (The first was in
1792, the 2nd in 1848)
The Dual Monarchy:
Austria-Hungary
Habsburg
Emperor of
Austrian
Empire
Habsburg
Emperor of
Austria

Habsburg
King of
Hungary
Nationalities within the Habsburg Empire
The Magyar – German Compromise
The Dual Monarchy was basically a compromise
between the Magyars and Germans of the Empire.
According to this compromise the Empire was divided
into two autonomous halves, Austria in the west
(dominated by the Germans) and Hungary in the east
(dominated by the Magyars). A critical tie between the
two halves that was to be maintained, however, was
that they would have the same sovereign, the
Habsburg ruler being simultaeously Emperor of
Austria and King of Hungary. (Technically the new
name for this arrangement was ‘Austria-Hungary’,
though many sources continue to refer to the ‘Austrian
Empire’ even after this date).
Reasons for the Habsburg
Acceptance of the Dual Monarchy
Growing recognition that even though Magyar nationalist
demands had been defeated in 1848, the defeat was only
temporary, and they would again surface unless the Magyars
were satisfied in some way.
Belief that the Magyars (more so than e.g. the Slavs) were a
noble and ancient nation.
Inability to rely on further Russian support. (Russia had helped
the Habsburgs in 1848, but Austria had failed to provide the
expected support for Russia during the Crimean War).
Successive military defeats of the Empire (first against
Piedmont (+France) and then especially against Prussia had
increased the belief that a domestic reorganization of the
Empire was needed in order for it to maintain its strength.
The Abolition of Serfdom in Russia
As in the case of the Austrian Empire, the abolition of serfdom in
Russia was again based largely on pragmatic politics, rather than
principles.
Serfdom in Russia was officially ended in Feb 1861. In evaluating
the military failures of Russia during the Crimean War, it was
decided that a major cause had been the low morale and motivation
of the serfs fighting for the Russian armies, defending a state in
which they had virtually no rights.
Though “officially” freed, however, the circumstances of the serfs did
not improve greatly in the short term. They were made to pay for the
compensation given to nobles who had lost their serfs and they were
not given the title to the land they worked till compensation was fully
paid. Hence the serfs economic servitude continued by other
means.
Reforms Continued in Britain
In the second-half of the C19th the process of political reform
initiated with the First (Great) Reform Bill of 1832 was given
further impetus.
In 1867, the Second Reform Bill was passed by parliament.
This now not only granted the right to vote to the middle
classes, but also to the better-off working classes. Many in the
working classes began by the 1850’s to move out of absolute
poverty and as their economic circumstances improved, they
gained greater social respectability, and as their social status
improved the pressures to give them the vote did so too. The
Second Reform Bill increased the size of the electorate from
about 1.5 million to 2.5 million, many of the newly enfranchised
now being from the working classes.
Interestingly, the Second Reform Bill had been championed by
conservative leader Disraeli. Realizing that it was only a matter
of time before pressures forced the government to grant the
right to vote to the voters, PM Disraeli took the lead on the
issue in order to win the political sympathy of the workers.
Reforms Continued in Britain (2)
Further important reforms that followed included the Education
Act (1870): Here for the first time the government accepted
responsibility for establishing and running primary schools
(before this the role had been played in only a limited way by
religious organizations)
The ‘Ballot Act’ of 1872 allowed for voting by secret ballot; the
Public Health Act of 1872 recognised the state’s duty to
interfere, even on private property, if the conditions of work
were unhealthy; the Artisans Dwelling act of 1875 made the
state directly involved in housing members of the working class