Transcript Great Monarchs (absolute) - Lyons-AP

Age of Absolutism leads to the
Age of Revolutions
1450 – 1750
Political System
Social System
Economic System
Cultural System (mannerism to baroque)
More secular
Education
Enlightenment (includes Scientific Revolution)
Absolutism and its limits
• Absolutism was possible because the European
economy was expanding, allowing the creation of
(comparatively) larger bureaucracies
• Kings found ways to strip nobles of their political
power
• However, kings had to concede freedom from
taxation to nobles
• The limits of a pre-industrial economy limited the
effectiveness of royal power.
• Main concern of governments was still raising
taxes and fighting wars.
• Even this proved too costly for most kings
Absolute Monarchs & Gunpowder Empires
Late 1500s – 1700s
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Queen Nzinga (1583-1663)
Louis XIV (1643 -1715)
Shah Abbas (1588-1629)
Frederick William the
Great Elector (1640-1688)
• Charles V (1519-1556)
• Elizabeth I 1558-1603)
• Phillip II (1556-1598)
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Akbar (1556-1605)
Kangxi (1661-1722)
Tokugaw Iseyasu (1598-1616)
Peter the Great (1682-1725)
Suleiman (1520 – 1566)
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Repeating Characteristics
Appearances of authority
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Accoutrements of power
New cities
Great Monuments
Divine Authority
Must 1st control the aristocracy and replace with a new bureaucracy
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Administrative body that has non-elected officials and procedures
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This requires large taxing bureaucracy
Geography of empire
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Either forced conversion or compromise
Require large military force either navy or army or combination of both
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Self-sufficiency
Control of trade through tariffs
Control of trade routes
Increase production of goods
Deal with the issue of merchants and increased trade
Increase banking practices and use and control of silver and gold
Religious conflict
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Military structures and new types of persons to control the military
Taxing structures and tax collectors
How does the aristocracy fight back
Mercantilist practices
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Chosen through different processes such as through inheritance or by merit
Where does it began and what methods are used to expand
Requires a before and after map
Greatness which should include cultural accomplishments
Rebuttal
Louis XIV
• 1643-1715
• Centralized the
administration of
France
– Government
– Financial
– Military
• Expanded the
territories of France
Absolute Best Example – Sun King
Louis XIV
• Revoked the Edict of Nantes
• Used the position of Intendents created by
Cardinal Richelieu under Louis XIII
• Aristocracy required to live at Versailles
and serve him personally
– They advance by getting royal favors and
offices
• Built Palace at Versailles
Financial Stability
• With his minister Colbert, he carried out the
administrative and financial reorganization of
the kingdom, as well as the development of
trade and manufacturing.
– Streamlined the tax (taille) collection system
– revoked the Edict of Nantes in 1685 which
caused some 200,000 people to flee France
• These were some of the most industrious peoples of
France and they took their capital with them
Mercantilism
• state intervention to create a self-sustaining
economy.
• Colbert used an aggressive tariff policy to
manipulate the import of raw materials and the
export of manufactured goods to improve the
balance of payments.
• He also fostered domestic trade and industry by
improving communications (roads and canals),
eliminating internal tolls, expanding the navy,
increasing colonial trade through the East India
Company and by subsidizing certain industries
(tapestries and furniture).
Military Reform
• With the Marquis de Louvois, he reformed
the army and racked up military victories.
• War with others across Europe in 30 Years
war to create balance of power
• War of Spanish Succession
– Phillip II his grandson gets Spain but Treaty of
Utrecht forbids the Bourbons to combine the
crowns of France and Spain
Cultural Patronage
• Finally, Louis encouraged an extraordinary
blossoming of culture:
– theatre (Molière and Racine)
– music (Lully)
– architecture, painting, sculpture, and all the sciences
(founding of the royal academies)
• Versailles became the seat of lavish spectacles,
such as ballets, balls, hunts, and receptions, all
presided over by the Sun King himself and
attended by the educated international nobility.
• French became the universal language of
Europe
Controlled the Aristocracy
• Had no time to tend to our own affairs and the
landed gentry and their properties developed in
disrepair
– Peasants on the land
• Forced the Parliments of Paris to register its
edicts before issuance
• established state factories for luxury goods (the
most famous was Les Gobelins).
• regulated every possible aspect of the private
sector: - the innumerable guild ordinances and
product règlements were meant to ensure high
manufacturing standards, but they spawned a
parasitic bureaucracy and cramped the free
development of industry.
Intendants
• Within the confines of his particular district, each Intendant
gave form and shape to all facets of the royal government.
– For example, the Intendant supervised the local law courts and nobles,
worked to eradicate smugglers and bandits, recruited soldiers,
oversaw the collection of taxes, regulated the marketplaces, guarded
against famine, and dealt with the guilds and towns.
• Moreover, he sometimes would decide court cases himself.
• These Intendants were in constant contact with the King’s
court, communicating with him and the state councils about
what was happening in their districts, and receiving orders on
what was to be done next.
• An important aspect of the Intendants was their social
origins. The king chose to use individuals whose upper-class
status was recent.
– These men were not embedded in the traditional, centuries-old power
arrangements, as were the ancient nobility. The “new aristocrats” had
no independent political power or influence: they owed their authority
and status to the king himself.
Rebuttal
• While we were tending to his personal needs in
the Palace the bourgeoisie undermined our
position as lords of our domains. The peasants
are beginning to refuse to pay their feudal
obligations to use the village oven and the flour
mill and the wine press. Even though we are
exempt from the Taille we pay for our worship of
the sun king through our lands.
• He is unchecked and has waged wars across
Europe.
• He will bankrupt the economic system and
eventually allow too much power to the
bourgeoisie. They will revolt!
The Bourgeoisie
• Bourgeois
– ‘city dweller’, eventually meant ‘middle-class’
• Transformation of the European economy in the
middle ages led to increased numbers of a wealthy,
non-aristocratic merchants and craftsmen based in
cities
– This group traditionally allied with the king against
the nobles
• The bourgeoisie provided a pool of educated men that
the king could place in the bureaucracy
– The king got loyal, competent bureaucrats and did not have
to rely on the aristocracy to help him govern
– The bourgeoisie obtained power and prestige usually denied
to non-nobles, and even the possibility of becoming noble
End of War and Louis XIV
• 1713 –
– Treaty of Utrecht ended the War of Spanish
succession which involved a Bourbon
successor to the throne which was a concern
to other monarchs throughout Europe as this
might upset a balance of power
• Philip was allowed to remain King of Spain as long
as the thrones of France and Spain were not united
• Louis died in 1715 - prompting great
celebration throughout France
Gardens of Versailles
Imagery at Versailles (Le Roi Soleil)
France after 100 years War 1453
Four major powers in Europe early
16th century prior to Louis XIV
Europe: The Age of Absolutism
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Charles
V
Hapsburg remnants of Holy Roman Empire began
with Otto I (936 – 973)
Charles V (Holy Roman Empire) (1500-1558), Holy
Roman emperor (1519-1558), and,
as Charles I, king of Spain (1516-1556),
Has to fight the Ottomans
Has a diverse and separated empire to hold together
Watches it begin to disintegrate
Signs the Peace of Augsburg (1555) to resolve some
of the religious conflict and thereby gives up a great
deal of authority over his Germanic dominions
Empire issues
• Plus ultra to describe his empire
– His reference is to “Even further” for his empire
– King of Spain
– Emperor of Holy Roman Empire
• Includes the Netherlands because of Spanish Empire
• Born in Ghent (his father Phillip ruled the Netherlands and
was Duke of Burgundy)
• Spoke French as his first language
• Also Kingdom of Naples as heir to Aragon
• Iron hand in a velvet glove
Centralization
• Attempted to create a constitution, and increase
its financial and military strength.
• An agreement was reached as to how the estates
of the realm should share in its government,
according to a scheme called the
Reichsregiment—how the expenses of the
imperial chamber etc. were to be met and how the
estates were to furnish the emperor military
assistance in war
• Too many realms and divisions
• Empire was not contiguous
1700 Europe After the 1648 Peace of Westphalia
1700 Europe
The Global Empire of Charles V
Economic and political stability
• With individuals Charles dealt still more
effectively—in Spain chiefly with the burghers,
in the Netherlands with the higher nobility.
• The latter he won to his support by bestowing
on them the most important offices and holding
out hopes of the Golden Fleece
– the former he hoped to win by leaving them the
control of taxation, so that they might regulate it
uniformly, and therefore less oppressively
• Church benefices
• Textile regulation in the Netherlands
Spain
• In Spain the opposition to Charles' policies
was found in the Cortes and in the city
governments, but still more among the
lesser nobility, the Hidalgueria, who
resisted all agricultural progress as well as
the emperor's external policy
Rebuttal- Charles gives up
• There is just too much going on around
me for me to hold this realm together.
Turks to the east, natives in the Americas,
economic changes in the Netherlands and
religious problems throughout. Although I
tried, no one policy could pull it all together
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Frederick William the Great Elector
Prussia
1640-1688
Frederick William I (ruled 1709-1710)
his grandson Frederick the Great (1710-1740)
Hohenzollern
Brandenburg
Combined territories to form Prussia
Frederick William the Elector of Prussia
Brandenburg to Hohenzollern (r. 1640-1688)
Frederick William I
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The Prussian Army
The General War Commissariat
The militarized state
The deal with the Junkers
Inviting immigrants
Mercantilist economics
Left the Prussian empire
economically sound, with an
efficient military, and centralized
authority
Militarism
• The Great Elector increased taxes threefold
and increased the size of his army tenfold
• Had an army of 40,000 which was the fourth
largest in Europe
• Recruited men who were over 6 foot tall
• Created the bureaucratic agency called the
General War Commissariat to levy taxes for
the army and administer its growth
General War Commissariat
1688
• established to levy taxes needed to support the
Army and its growth.
• became an civil government agency as well.
• Commissariats was used to govern everything.
– Had to be strangers to the district for which they
were appointed
• This agencies help centralize power and
allowed for Fredrick Williams successors
Absolutism in Prussia
• Holy Roman Empire fragmented after the
30 Years War (1618-1648)
• Frederick William, the Great Elector of
Brandenburg-Prussia (r. 1640-1688)
– Turned small collection of German
states into rising European power
– Made deal with Junkers
• Prussian nobles
– Junkers allowed him to raise taxes to
pay army, in return, Frederick allowed
them complete control over their serfs
• Created the War Commissariat
Prussian Grenadier
Count von von Seckendorf – ambassador from Vienna
comments on the Prussian military
It is certain that nowhere in the world one can see troops comparable
with the Prussians for beauty, cleanliness, and order. Although in
drill, training, and marching much is forced and affected, nearly
everything is useful and efficient. Besides, it must be admitted that
the army and the troops lack nothing that is needed. The soldiers
number 70,000, and every regiment has at least a hundred more
men than the normal figure. The Arsenal is superabundantly
provided with field artillery and siege artillery, and only the teams
are missing. Moreover, there is such an enormous store of powder,
shot, and shells as if a great war was threatening. In Berlin and all
about Brandenburg one sees as many troops moving as one saw in
Vienna during the last war against the Turks. All this activity is
directed by the King in person, and only by him. Besides, he looks
after the whole public administration in all its branches With such
care and thoroughness that not a thaler [note: a monetray unit]is
spent unless he has given his signature. Those who do not see it
cannot believe that there is any man in the world, however
intelligent and able he may be, who can settle so many things
personally in a single day as Frederick William the First, who works
from 3 o'clock in the morning till 10, and spends the rest of' the day
in looking after and drilling his army....
Deal with the Junkers
• In order to eliminate the power that the members of the
nobility could exercise in their provincial Estates-General,
Frederick William made a deal with the Junkers.
• In return for a free hand in running the government (in
other words, for depriving the provincial Estates of their
power), he gave the nobles almost unlimited power over
their peasants, exempted them from taxation, and
awarded them the highest ranks in the army and the
Commissariat with the understanding that they would not
challenge his political control.
• As for the peasants, the nobles were allowed to
appropriate their land and bind them to the soil as serfs”
(Spiel.4th Ed. 436-7).
Prussia
Religious toleration led to financial security
• Many Hugeonots migrated to Prussia (Edict of Potsdam 1685)
• Frederick William positively encouraged religious toleration as
he believed that it would benefit his state. Jews and Roman
Catholics were both tolerated in Brandenburg -Prussia as
long as they had a talent Frederick William wanted for
Brandenburg-Prussia. Frederick William was especially keen
to tempt Huguenots to Brandenburg-Prussia as they had a
European reputation for expertise in business.
– In 1672, a French Protestant Church was established in
Berlin and, in total, about 100,000 Huguenots came to
Brandenburg-Prussia ands greatly assisted in her
modernisation.
– By 1700, one-third of Berlin’s population was Huguenot
and their skills allowed Brandenburg-Prussia to develop a
flourishing candle and paper-making trade, mirror and
glove manufacturing etc. Frederick William himself
estimated that religious toleration increased BrandenburgPrussia’s population by 33%.
Rebuttal by Junker
• According to the RECESS, although I can now do
as I please with my territory and the workers
cannot leave me, I am afraid to confront the
Great Elector because he has used my money to
create such a great army, I can longer oppose
anything he does. What am I to do?
• He is using my money, my hard earned profits
from my estates, to buy his army which he then
uses against me.
• I guess I will have to go join the army.
Succeeded by “Enlightened”
• Frederick the Great (Frederick II -17121786)
– "first servant of the state."
– Prussian Hohenzollern
– Started the 7 Years War (1756-1753)
• Impacted three world regions – Europe, North
America, & South Asia
• Treaty of Hubertusburg
Shah Abbas(1588-1629)
Safavids (1501 -1732)
• Obscure origin which is most probably Sunni and
Kurdish, the Safavids (named after a sufi master,
Shaykh Safi)
– forged for themselves an illustrious genealogy that
goes back to `Ali, and proceeded to forcibly change
Iran into a Shiite state.
– In the process they shaped the modern image
of the Iranian nation.
• The greatest Safavid monarch,
– he moved the capital to Isfahan in 1598,
– built there a royal city that extended to the south of the old city and
connected it with the Zayandeh river via a wide avenue, the
Chahar Bagh (Four Gardens) Avenue.
Shah Abbas Mosque - Isfahan
Safavid Empire
Cultural control
• 1st Safavid ruler to conquer the territory of Persia was a 14-year-old boy
by the name of Ismael (Shah Ismael – Shah being the title the Safavids
used for "emperor").
• Ismael lived up to the legend of descent from Muhammad in his exploits.
– He was apparently quite devout, and seemed also to be unable to lose a
military campaign.
– His "red cap" army was absolutely devoted to him, and took extreme risks in
his name.
• Ismael established the first Safavid Capitol City in Isfahan, and went on to
rule according to Islamic principles.
• His claim to descent from the 12th Imam meant, of course, that he had to
rule according to Shiite, rather than Sunni principles of Islam, and he and
his successors were often quite brutal in forcing their subjects to become
Shiite Muslims (the majority had been Sunni prior to the Safavid arrival).
• To do this, subjects often were required to prove their change by cursing
the names of the first three Caliphs
• There were often small uprisings as a result and the “red cap” army of the
Shah had to remain large and significant
Centralization
• local Qezelbash chiefs had grown wealthy in land and in
collecting taxes.
• Abbas put to death many of the Qizilbash tribesmen who
had traditionally been associated with Safavid rule up to
this point, and instead surrounded himself with an elite
household guard.
• He used slaves as governmental officials
– thousands of Georgian, Circassian and Armenian prisoners
captured in campaigns fought in the Caucasus in the 1540s and
1550s. Female slaves entered the royal harem, becoming
mothers of princes and a force in court politics and dynastic
quarrels.
– Some of the male slaves began to acquire positions of influence,
under Shah Abbas I, reaching high offices that challenged the
supremacy of the Qezelbash.
Military
• He recruited soldiers from Persian villages and from among Christians,
Georgians, Circassian, Armenians and others, equipped them with artillery
and muskets.
• The Christians were proud to serve the shah and to call themselves
"Ghulams" (boys) of the shah although slaves they were not.
• To finance the new army, Shah Abbas converted large pieces of land
traditionally granted to tribal chiefs as assignments into crown lands that
he taxed directly.
• This new military force was trained on European lines with the advice of
Robert Sherley.
• Sherley was an English adventurer expert in artillery tactics who,
accompanied by a party of cannon founders, reached Qazvin with his
brother Anthony Sherley in1598.
• In a short time Shah Abbas created a formidable army, consisting of
cavalry, infantry and artillery.
Military reorganization
created a national army
• Hired Robert and Anthony Sherley – British mercaneries
to help reshape his military
– Three bodies of troops were formed, all trained and armed in the
European manner and paid out of the royal treasury: the ghulams
(slaves), the tofongchis (musketeers), and the topchis
(artillerymen).
• With his new army, Abbas defeated the Ottoman Turks in
1603, forcing them to relinquish all the territory they had
seized, and captured Baghdad.
• He also expelled (1602,1622) the Portuguese traders who
had seized the island of Hormuz in the Persian Gulf in the
16th century.
• Shah Abbas remarkable reign, with its striking military
successes and efficient administrative system, raised Iran
to the status of a great power.
Economic Stability
• His domestic policy was marked by a real
interest in building up the infrastructure for a
successful economy. New roads and bridges
were built and he imported skilled merchants
from Armenia to help build up the silk trade with
India.
• As part of the stabilization process he enforced
adherence to Shi'ism and acceptance of Farsi
as the national language.
Economic and Religious stability
• Created a monopoly within his empire to profit from
the production of silk and silk carpets
• adherence to Shi'ism
• Tolerant of Christianity and allowed many churches
to be built and allowed Christians to dress in what
they wanted and allowed them to own property
within the empire
• Mosques Masjid i Shah and the Masjid i Sheykh
Lotfollah; and other monuments including the Ali
Qapu, the Ghehel Sotun, and the Meydan-i Shah.
Cultural Mecca
• Philosphers an Scientists
• Molla Sadra, Mir Damad,
• Sheikh Baha-e-Din Ameli, or Sheikh Bahai
– a great philosopher and scientist.
– created a system of heating in a public bath
that would provide enough warm water for
people to bathe with the power of a single
candle
Great Monarch
• He used Western economic principles and allied
with westerns to defeat the Ottomans and the
Portuguese providing stability to his empire
• With this stability he built a new city, encouraged
new schools to be built, and fostered the arts
demonstrated in the many new types of patterns
of carpets and new and different types of
mosques that were built
Rebuttal by Qezelbash chiefs
• As he takes our land and uses the profits
to pay the Ghulams he takes away the
religious strength of our empire. We made
him what he is through our organization
and he tries to take what we have built
over many generations. He doesn’t serve
our empire and our religion; he serves
himself with great palaces and a great
harem.
Queen Nzinga
• 1583-1663
• Known as the Queen
Warrior
• Took the name Pande
Dona Ana Souza
• Centralized the
Mbundu a Bantu Zulu
tribe in Western Africa
Trading Posts
• Along the Atlantic coast of Africa, the Portuguese
established trade forts and trading posts, the most
important of which was El Mina.
• Forts normally existed with the consent of local rulers,
who benefited from European trade.
• The initial Portuguese ports were located in the goldproducing region, where the Europeans penetrated
already extant African trade routes.
• From the coast, Portuguese traders slowly penetrated
inland to establish new trade links. In addition to
trade, the Portuguese brought missionaries, who
attempted to convert the royal families of Benin,
Kongo, and other coastal kingdoms.
• Only in Kongo, where Nzinga Mvemba accepted
conversion, did the missionaries enjoy success.
Centralization of tribes against the
Portuguese
• Queen Nzingha of Ndongo belonged to the
Mbundu, a large and ancient ethnic group that
lived in modern-day Angola.
• The Mbundu were divided into tribes, including
the Songo, Lenge, Libolo, Hungu, Pende,
Ndongo, and Imbangala.
• Every group was made up of clans descended
from their mother's side of the family.
• Every clan was identified with their mother's clan
and all the marriages were marriages between
clans related maternally. Nzingha's family ruled
the Ndongo people.
Limited by History – Queen Nzinga
KINGDOM OF NDONGO
• Converted to Christianity to enhance her political dealings with the
Portuguese who had shifted their slave trading from the west coast of
Africa to the tribal land of the Mbundu (became known as Angola)
• Married a local tribal chief, uniting their tribes in their quest to expel
the Portuguese
– She later allied with the Dutch in an effort to expel the Portuguese
• In1624 she named all those in Angola to be free, encouraging
captives from all across Africa to come
• She renounced her Western name and her conversion and
encouraged all of her subjects to do the same
• To her people she claimed her royal position simply as “I Am”, and
they followed her by resisting the Portuguese for 40 years
• She provided sanctuary to runaway slaves and Portuguese-trained
African soldiers and adopted a form of military organization known as
kilombo, in which youths renounced family ties and were raised
communally in militias.
– They used guerilla techniques for 20 years, disrupting the slave
trade of the Portuguese
– She fought along side her soldiers, dressing like a man
Africa 1700s
(Congo)
Kongo
• We cannot reckon how great the damage
is, since the merchants daily seize our
subjects, sons of the land and sons of our
noblemen, vassals and relatives ... and
cause them to be sold; and so great, Sir, is
their corruption and licentiousness that our
country is being utterly depopulated.
—Afonso I, in a letter to King João of
Portugal, 1526
Alfonso thought he could use the Portuguese for
technology but they used him instead
• From 1514, the slave trade became an integral part of the
economy. Afonso’s attempts to control and later abolish the
slave trade were futile, as the Portugese appetite for slaves
was insatiable.
• By 1516, Kongo was exporting 4,000 slaves annually until
1540, when it increased to approximately 7,000.
• The Portugese pressed for more slaves, and the demands of
the tribute system forced Afonso to comply with their
excessive demands.
• The standard source of slaves—war captives and criminals—
was drying up and new sources—slave raiding and buying
slaves from the Tio region with nzimbu shells—were found.
• The revenue from the slave trade financed the hiring of
priests, artisans, and teachers, and purchased luxury items
for the nobility.
Rebuttal by Dutch Trader
• These Kongolese and Mbundu would best
benefit if they helped us rid the
countryside of the tribes competing with
them. They could ally with us, expel the
Portuguese who mistreat their people so,
and help us conquer the other tribes. We
would send the healthy men to the
Americas and they could use the women
and children to serve them.
Islamic Gunpowder Empires
Akbar the Great of Mughal dynasty
(1556-1605)
• Expanded territory westward
– Built the pillar of heads of fallen forces
• Gave Calcutta to the British
• Provided cotton textiles to the west
• Undercut the Ottomans contacts and forced them
into competition with the western Christians
• He rebuilt the military and administrative system
• Married a Rajiput princess
– Repealed the jiza (tax on non-Muslims), an act which
favored the Rajiputs
• Suceeded by Shah Jahan and Aurangzeb
• Akbarnāma, or three volume history of Akbar
chronicles the Mughal dynasty back to Timur
Religious toleration
• founder of the Din-i-Ilahi faith
• Merged Hinduism and Islam but also had
Christian, Janism and even Zorastacism
• Idea that no one religion held the idea of
truth
• Allowed other religions to flourish
• Restored Hindu temples
Administration and building
• Navratnas
– Nine court “jewels” or administrators
• Divided the expanded government into
Sarkar(s)
• Moved the court from Delhi to Fatehpur Sikri
and built a series of forts which were added
to by his successor shifted to Agra – Red Fort
• Fatepur Sikri was abandoned due to lack of
water
Centralization
• Rajiputs, warrior class, provided
administration helped collect new tax
• Cadaster
– Based on income producing instead of value
• Abolished the jizya(h)
Babur on India
“Without means and resources there
is no empire and conquest, and
without lands and followers there is
no sovereignty and rule.”
- The Babur-nama in English
Mughal Empire Akbar & Shah Jahan
Ming and Qing Dynasties
Ming to Qing (Manchu)
• "By Qing times after 1644 the non-Chinese Inner
Asian ingredient of military control had been
absorbed into china’s social-political system.
The symbiosis of China with Inner Asians
(Manchus and Mongols) confirmed and
perfected the Neo-Confucian order. It was an
agrarian-nomadic-bureaucratic style distinctly
different from the industrial-militaryentrepreneurial style then developing among the
Western nations"
Kangxi (1661-1722)
Manchu – Qing – Ching – Ch’ing
• The Chinese political and social order is at its
height in this "late imperial" period of the last two
dynasties: the examination system has, from the
Tang dynasty onward, created a strong
centralized and fully functional civil service in
place of an aristocratic elite with a territorial base
of power.
• Scholar-gentry, residing at home as they study
for the next level of examination or await official
appointment, support the work of the appointed
district magistrate (who, by regulation, cannot be
from the district) and form one elite class of
Confucian literati that governs China.
Manchu outsiders
• Kangxi Emperor always spoke Chinese with a
Manchu accent.
– This reflects the fact that Kangxi had a decent but not a
perfect Chinese education, and is symbolic of the fact
that he always remained a Manchu in his values.
• He was sympathetic to Chinese culture, knew a fair
amount about it, but he always approached it as a
sympathetic outsider.
– In other words, he was a perfect example of the kind of
Manchu aristocrat it would take to rule China:
• a conquest ethnic aristocrat acculturated to, but not swallowed up
by the Chinese host culture.
• Original astrophysical studies and correspondence
in Manchu and he later did NOT encourage the
translation of these into Mandarin for the scientists
Increase in population under his
watch
• triple cropping of rice caused the
population of China to more than double
from between 180 million in 1700 to 400
million in 1800
Kangxi’s martial exploits and
achievements
• Incorporation of Taiwan by defeating and
subduing the Ming loyalist Zheng Chenggong &
his successors (1683)
• Defeating the Russians in the north & signed the
treaty of Nerchinsk
• Won the war against “Three Feudatories”
• Won the war against Western Mongols who
controlled Tibet
• 1720, Qing entered Tibet & installed a proChinese Dalai Lama
Emperor Kangxi (1662-1722)
• The unification of the Jurchen tribes under
Nurgaci (1559-1626)
– The “Banner” system: a military-civilian unit of
120-278 companies),
– Ethnicity based units: 8 Banners for each
ethnicity of Manchu, Mongol, and Chinese
• Kangxi, the second emperor, consolidated
the Manchu rule, creating the Golden Age
of Qing in 17-18 centuries
Kangxi’s political & economic policy
• Two-sided policy toward the Chinese elite:
– The continuity of Chinese traditions
– A patron of Confucianism & Chinese art: the Kangxi
Dictionary & a special civil service examination
– Preservation of the Manchu identity and superiority
and courting the Chinese loyalty
– Brutal suppression of any dissenting voice
– Tax reform: “one whip tax” combining land and head
taxies; once accessed, the amount was fixed for 50
years
Ming Empire
The Ch’ing Empire at its peak
Manchu origins and expansion
The Qing Empire and tributaries 1700s
Rebuttal by Eunuch
• He does not allow us to pass along our
material gains to our families
JAPAN
Tokugaw Iseyasu (1598-1616)
• Hideyoshi decreed in 1586 that farmers must stay on their
land. In 1587 he decreed that only samurai would be
allowed to carry the long sword, which would later define
them as a class. As economic conditions changed, the
shoguns were less successful, however, in maintaining the
rigid boundaries separating the other classes
• eta were outcastes, forced to live in their own communities
and avoided by other members of Japanese society.
– They held this low status due to their occupations, which were
associated with death: disposing of animal carcasses and tanning
animal hides
• Responsible for distribution of the rice
– There were over 270 daimyo in Tokugawa Japan who received at
least 10,000 koku (1 koku measurement of feeding one person for a
year about 5 bushels)
• 1597 issued a third banning edict of Christianity and
executed 26 Franciscan monks in Nagasaki
Road to partial isolation
• Within a century of the arrival of the Portuguese in Japan in 1543, they are
followed by the Dutch and British who have battled to break the Portuguese
and then Spanish control of the Asian spice trade.
– The East India companies established by the Dutch and British, respectively,
become active in the early 1600s; the Dutch (1609) and the British (1613)
establish trading relations with the Japanese with bases on a Japanese island.
• In an effort to reestablish order in its international relations, however, the
Tokugawa Shogunate prohibits trade with Western nations, prohibits
Japanese from going abroad to trade (ending the unofficial piracy and trade
on the China coast), and reaffirms Japan's official relations with China and
Korea within the East Asian international structure.
• Following the "Act of Seclusion" (1636) setting forth these conditions, Japan
is effectively "secluded" from interchange with Western Europe (but not with
East Asia) for the next 200 years.
– Only the Dutch retain a small outpost on an island in Nagasaki Harbor; books
obtained from the Dutch are translated into Japanese and "Dutch learning" forms
the basis of the Japanese knowledge of developments in the West throughout
this period.
– Within East Asia, trade continues with the Koreans and Chinese, and exchange
of goods and ideas with China is maintained. The East Asian political order, with
China at the center is reinforced
Isolation
• First step taken was persecution of Christians, then
banning of Christianity in 1614
• after 1616 foreign merchants limited to few ports
• by 1640s, only Dutch and Chinese admitted at
Deshima
• Neo-Confucian philosophy gave way to the
influence of thinkers who championed the school of
"National Learning.“ based on indigenous
Japanese culture
• differed from Chinese in maintaining oversight of
European technological developments.
Tokugawa Japan
Osaka Castle. seized by forces of Tokugawa Ieyasu in 1615
Tokugawa
• Daimyo
– fudai (inside) daimyo
– tozama (outside) daimyo
• Ronin
– "masterless" samurai, without a lord to answer to, but
also without any definite means of support. The ronin
might settle down in a particular location to teach or
perform other duties, though many of them wandered
the countryside, looking for gainful employment. Some
sold their services as hired warriors to the highest
daimyo bidder. Of the approximately 30 million
Japanese during the Tokugawa period, about 2 million
were samurai.
• Bakufu
– Governing council
Rebuttal
Portuguese trader
• We have an opening into the empire as
the Tokugawa need our saltpeter to
continue their have viable threats against
their hostages.
• We can only take so much Kabuki and
Buddhism but will stay in Nagasaki for as
long as it takes to push them out of their
stronghold in Edo.
Peter the Great
• Prior to Peter the czars confiscated privately held lands in the
conquered principalities and gave these estates to
calvarymen who pledged continual military service in return.
In the 16th century the streltsy, a regular infantry corps
armed with firearms, was formed.
– The tsars now had an army of their own and were no longer
dependent on the military forces raised by the boyars.
• Rise of the Romanov beginning with Michael selected by the
boyars (zemsky sobor )
• Peter expanded Russia towards Europe and European
interests and followed the Muscovy efforts to protect
themselves from any further incursions of the Mongolian
hordes.
– Peter's wars with the Ottoman Empire and Sweden indicated a
westward shift in Russian expansion.
• Wanted a large army to expand Russian borders to for buffer
zones
• Needed iron weapons, ships made of new metals and
technologies as Russia had no navy, and needed guns for his
very large army.
European Populations and
Armies
Finance and control
• He implemented taxes on everything imaginable to
include candles, nuts, boots, hats, horses, beehives,
beards, chimneys, and drinking water
• In 1721, the church hierarchy was officially abolished
by the Ecclesiastical Reservation and the church was
placed under the control of the Holy Synod and was
fully linked to the state.
– The 1721 Regulation specifically stated what the clergy
could do
• it was designed to control their daily life so that they became an
apparatus of the state.
– The task of the clergy was seen as two-fold
• to work for the state and to make their congregations totally
submissive to the state by convincing them that Peter was all but
God-like to ensure the population of Russia's total subordination to
the crown
Education and culture
• In 1701, the School of Navigation and Maths was
founded in Moscow.
• This was run by British teachers. In the same year,
similar schools were created for artillery and languages.
• In 1707, a School of Medicine was created and in 1712
a School of Engineering.
– Thirty maths schools were created in the provinces and in 1724,
a year before Peter's death, a School of Science was
established though the lack of scientists in Russia meant that it
had to be initially staffed by foreigners.
• Young boyars required to attend
• Dress western european
•
Economic
shift
Remained significantly agriculturally based and dependent on
the large coercive labor force
• Westernization was limited to the elite and aristocracy
• In 1718, two colleges were created for commerce and mines
and manufacturing.
– His technological advancements were to obtain self-sufficiency in
building his navy and guns
• Under state direction, factories of all types were developed.
• Prices were fixed by the state and the state had the right to be
the first purchaser from the producers - but at a price fixed by
the state.
• Private businesses could make a profit only on the surplus of
produce which the state did not want and many successful
enterprises were simply taken over by the state.
•
Coercive
labor
Barshchina is the labour, mostly agricultural, performed by a Russian peasant or
serf for a landlord, whether the church, the state, or an individual landowner.
– Barshchina originated in Kievan Rus and became widespread in the later part of the
Mongol Yoke, when agricultural production increased.
– The labour was performed one day weekly in the fifteenth century, and increased to three
days in the seventeenth century.
– In 1797, it was forbidden to work on Sundays.
– Both men and women performed the labour, and children began limited services at age
fourteen.
– Barshchina often included: sowing, reaping and bringing in crops; constructing buildings
and fences and keeping them in repair; hunting and fishing; spinning flax; brewing beer;
baking bread; working in flour and weaving mills; making bricks; and carting goods to
market.
– Barshchina did not end in 1861, as freed peasants had to meet their obligations to former
landlords for two years or until they had redeemed their land from the landlord.
•
Obrok is rent paid for the use of land, either in kind (i.e. poultry, eggs, meat, honey,
cloth, grain) or in money.
– Obrok was more widespread than barshchina from the thirteenth to the early sixteenth
century.
– Obrok decreased in the sixteenth century, as the practice of service-tenure landholding
developed.
– In the eighteenth century, obrok was more predominant in areas of poorer farmland and
where trade was developed, and more commonplace among church and crown peasants.
– With the development of peasant trade in the second half of the eighteenth century, their
was more widespread payment of obrok in money rather than in kind.
– Generally, peasants who paid obrok had more economic freedom than those who
performed barshchina.
– After 1861, obrok was replaced by the system of redemption payments.
Peter the Great r.1682-1725
• The Russian official rank system was based on
Peter the Great’s decree of 4 February 1722 that
provided a system for equivalencies of ranks among
the army branches and the civilian service.
• The Table comprised of 14 classes of ranks and civilian positions,
although it did not extend top the lower levels of service.
• It remained in effect with slight modifications until the October
Revolution of 1917.
• As Peter the Great launched his reforms in Russia in early 1700s,
it became evident that a new system of promotion was required to
organize his new army and society.
• That was particularly important for the nobility who were obliged
under Peter’s decrees to serve in the army.
• In addition, as he formed his army along the European lines, Peter
the Great endeavored to simplify the transfers from one branch of
service to another as well as determining the precedence of the
officials in civilian service and court.
St. Petersburg: "Peters Window on the West" and "Venice of the North“
Also the city “built on bones”
Rebuttal from a boyar
• His liking for the crudest sort of practical jokes, and the
grossness of many aspects of life at the Russian court,
were certainly not without parallels elsewhere in Europe.
Nevertheless, they were carried to lengths which foreign
observers witnessed with a mixture of horror,
amusement, and astonishment. One of them noted in
October 1698 that at another banquet 'Boyar Golovin
has, from his cradle, a natural horror of salad and
vinegar; so the Czar directing Colonel Chambers to hold
him tight, forced salad and vinegar into his mouth and
nostrils, until the blood flowing from his nose succeeded
his violent coughing.'
• A.G. Dickens (Ed.). The Courts of Europe : Politics,
Patronage and Royalty 1400-1800. McGraw-Hill, 1977
Rebuttal from a Cossack
• Peter doesn’t ride like the wind like we do
• He gave us promises
• We agreed to move into the new areas and in
return we were suppose to be able to control
• We keep our horses and our traditions and one
day will take over and these Rus will submit to
our culture
• Pugachev Rebellion supported by the Cossacks
Growth of Russia
Suleiman
1494-1566
r. 1520 – 1566
Ottomans
• The Ottomans had a high tolerance of alien
cultures and religions
• The men of the ruling Dynasty, the house of
Osman, always married women with mixed
heritage, Turkish, Greek, Arab, Russian, Serbian,
thus themselves were mixed.
• Janissaries
• Allowed conquered regions to tax themselves and
govern under their civil law a system known as the
millet
• Later developed the devshirme in conqueored
regions which provided the young boys who as
trained and educated became the Janissaries
Suleiman the Lawgiver
• Kunan has grown to be a signficant part of
Shari’ah (teachings)
• kanun-i 'Osmani
• Adapted the Yasa and the Shari
• Patron of Sinan - one of the greatest and most
prolific mosque builder
– over 80
– Mosque of Suleiman
• Wrote under the nom de plume of Muhibbi, the
Loving
– Between 83 – 210 collected poems
To a women in his harem
Throne of my lonely niche, my wealth, my love, my
moonlight.
My most sincere friend, my confidant, my very existence,
my Sultan
The most beautiful among the beautiful...
My springtime, my merry faced love, my daytime, my
sweetheart, laughing leaf...
My plants, my sweet, my rose, the one only who does not
distress me in this world...
My Istanbul, my Caraman, the earth of my Anatolia
My Badakhshanmy Baghdad, my Khorasan
My woman of the beautiful hair, my love of the slanted
brow, my love of eyes full of mischief...
I'll sing your praises always
I, lover of the tormented heart, Muhibbi of the eyes full of
tears, I am happy.
Growth in the military under Suleyman -Devsirme
• Janissary army from 12,000 to between 35-40,000
• Needed to stop the incursions of Shah Abbas of the Safavid Empire
• Janissaries were conscripted from Christian families and defined as
property of the Sultan
– The Janissaries were subject to strict rules, limiting their freedom and
demanding higher moral standards than usual in the society.
– In the first couple of centuries, they were forced to celibacy, but this
would later change.
– The janissaries were not allowed to grow beard, which was the sign of a
free man.
– They were even denied contact with the normal society in the areas
were they were stationed.
– Through their training, they were learned to put their allegiance to the
bey/sultan.
– Studied literature, law, calligraphy, theology, and languages
– despite strict rules, they enjoyed high living standards and a social
status which intended to give logic and force to their loyalty.
– over time, the Janissaries were so successful that they grew into one of
the strongest power institutions in the empire.
– They could exercise this strength to influence the policy and to defend
their own interests.
– Under Suleyman they began to marry and people within the empire could
apply to become a Janissary
Other religions were tolerated
• Jizah
– Tax on the dhimmi
Ottoman
Rebuttal
• They have taken me from my home although
they allow me to convert to Islam I am away
from my family
• I wield great power as my cohorts have become
ministers but he is allowing others in the
bureaucracy to make decisions including those
women in the harem
• He spends too much time writing and building
and needs to fight his wars
• I wish he would allow me to grow a beard
Enlightened Monarchs
• Catherine the Great
• Joseph II of Austria
(HRE)
• Frederick II (Frederick
the Great) (1740 –
1786)
Czars
• Romanov’s begin with Michael
• Evolution of concept of Russia begins in
Kievan Rus to Duchy of Muscovy and
Muscovites occupation of Mongolians known
in Russia as the Golden Horde
• Ivan III and Ivan IV drive out the Mongolians
• Time of Troubles results in the selection of
Michael Romanov
Growth of the Russian Empire: Ancient Slavic Centers 800s - 1200s
http://www.uwec.edu/bawdent/geog150/Powerpoints/Section%203/russia.human.ppt#2
Novgorod
Moscow
Kiev
Catherine the Great r. 1762-1796
• Expanded territories
– Alaska
– Parts of Siberia
– Pacific coast of North America as far south as
California
– Poland (180,000 sq mi)
– Crimea
• Turkish Wars involved over 3 million
peasants and lasted for 10 years
Catherine – Great or Not
• Supported the arts, literature, and theater
– Hermitage and required French to be spoken at her court
– Voltaire and ideas of the Enlightenment
• Ideas were not enacted
• Extended serfdom increasing numbers and later problems
– Edict and pogroms
– Pogrom - from the Russian word meaning "to wreak havoc," a pogrom is an
organized attack, often a massacre, against a minority group
– Russia saw a progressive intensification of serfdom while the West was
relaxing this institution in favor of other labor systems.
• Further Westernized the nobility who began to speak French at court
• Acquired vast new territories
– Won control of the southern Crimea region which provided a warm water port
– Acquired Polish territory in the east to provide greater European ties
– Moved Eastward all the way to the Pacific
• 1773 - Yemelyan Pugachev led a Cossack rebellion against the monarchy
that also developed into a revolt against serf owners. Romanov troops
crushed the revolt in 1774, and Catherine strengthened the oppressive serf
laws
• Created the Pale of the Settlement (already expelled from Russia in 1742
now part as Partition of Poland)
Religious Intolerance
• From 1791 until 1915, the Jews living in Eastern
Europe were confined by the Czars of Russia -starting with Catherine the Great -- to an area
known as the "Pale of Settlement" (meaning
"borders of settlement").
• The Pale consisted of 25 provinces that included
Ukraine, Lithuania, Belorussia, Crimea, and part
of Poland (which had been partitioned between
Russia, Prussia, and Austria in 1772).
• Jews were specifically expelled from Moscow
and St. Petersburg and forced into the Pale.
Enlightened Despot
• In 1767 Catherine summoned an assembly to draft a new
code of laws for Russia and gave detailed instructions to
the members about the principles they should apply.
• The proposed code never went into effect.
• The code drips with "enlightend language"
– What is the true End of Monarchy? Not to deprive People of their
natural Liberty; but to correct their Actions, in order to attain the
supreme Good.
– This Equality requires Institutions so well adapted, as to prevent the
Rich from oppressing those who are not so wealthy as themselves,
and converting all the Charges and Employments intrusted to them
as Magistrates only, to their own private Emolument....
• the reality of government in Russia was rather different.
– The tsarist government combined a real
monopoly of formal politics by a central
administration, but over noble-owned estates
the power of the government was nonexistent.
From Decree on Serfs (1767)
• The Governing Senate. . . has deemed it necessary to make known > that
the landlords' serfs and peasants . . . owe their landlords proper submission
and absolute obedience in all matters, according to the laws r that have
been enacted from time immemorial by the autocratic forefathers of Her
Imperial Majesty and which have not been repealed, and which provide that
all persons who dare to incite serfs and peasants to disobey their landlords
shall be arrested and taken to the nearest government office, there to be
punished forthwith as disturbers of the public tranquillity, according to the
laws and without leniency. And should it so happen that even after the
publication of the present decree of Her Imperial Majesty any serfs and
peasants should cease to give the proper obedience to their landlords . . .
and should make bold to submit unlawful petitions complaining of their
landlords, and especially to petition Her Imperial Majesty personally, then
both those who make the complaints and those who write up the petitions
shall be punished by the knout and forthwith deported to Nerchinsk to penal
servitude for life and shall be counted as part of the quota of recruits which
their landlords must furnish to the army. And in order that people everywhere
may know of the present decree, it shall be read in all the churches on
Sundays and holy days for one month after it is received and therafter once
every year during the great church festivals, lest anyone pretend ignorance.
•
From A Source Book for Russian History, G. Vernadsky, trans. (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1972), Vol.
2, pp. 453-454.
Political and Economic Administration
• massively reorganized local governments in 1775,
but, unlike the Prussians, she created a civil
bureaucracy, not of all ranks of society, but of the
nobility.
– She was, after all, intensely aware of her precarious hold
on power; she had gotten this power through a palace
coup by the nobility.
• Her most dramatic reforms came in the economic
sphere.
– set about eliminating trade barriers such as taxes and
tariffs, and worked hard to build up the Russian middle
class.
– issued charters granting or outlining all the rights
available to individual towns in an effort to spur
productivity and the growth of wealth.
Growth of Russia
Joseph II r. 1765 – 1790
HRE
• Abolished serfdom
• Eliminated the death penalty
• Established a principle of equality before
the law for all people
• Enacted religious reforms
Religious reforms
• Joseph also sought to bring the Catholic church
under his control.
• First, he made it illegal for any clergy to
communicate directly to the pope or the Vatican.
• He shut down over six hundred monasteries and
convents and claimed monastic lands for himself.
• He also shut down all the seminaries and replaced
them with his own; in these new seminaries,
prospective priests would be taught to obey him
rather than the pope.
• These policies effectively ended any influence that
the Catholic church had over Austrian peoples.
Toleration
• In 1781, he declared the Toleration Patent, which declared
that all Lutherans, Greek Orthodox, and Calvinist churches
could freely worship without official harassment.
• These separate denominations were also allowed to found their
own churches, schools, and hospitals, and could serve in the
official bureaucracy.
• Joseph was also the only European monarch to ease the
oppression of Jews within his territory.
• Although he never granted Jews the same religious freedoms
as he granted to Christian denominations, he did significantly
ease the tax burden and official harassment.
– He also allowed them to freely worship in private (but not in public).
Social Status
• abolished serfdom as a legal status entirely. In addition, he granted a
number of new liberties to the peasant population:
– the right to learn skills,
– right to marry,
– the right to educate their own children.
• He also took many of the privileges that landlords held over peasants
away.
• He wasn't, however, doing all this to salve his conscious.
• New Enlightenment social theories about the selfishness of human
beings implied that people worked harder and more productively when
they saw some personal advantage to be gained from it. Joseph
hoped to harness this selfishness by making life easier and more
rewarding for the peasantry; the payoff, he believed, would be harder
work and greater productivity from the labor force that cultivated the
land.
Frederick II of Prussia (1740-1786)
• He abolished the serf system which tied tenant farmers to
certain properties for life and replaced the powers accruing to
the nobility with a greatly expanded bureaucracy composed of
educated civil servants. His father, Frederick William I (17131740), was dedicated to the military expansion of Prussia; to do
this, he built a bureaucracy of civil service entirely based on
merit.
• Frederick II, however, saw the need to include the nobility and
actively recruited them into the civil service. For Frederick was
above all a pragmatic enlightened monarch who saw the need
to placate all aspects of society.
• Following Cesare Beccaria, Frederick eliminated the use of
torture in judicial proceedings and judicial punishments,
abandoned capital punishment and greatly reduced corruption
in the judicial system.
• Following Voltaire (whom he knew personally), Frederick
passed a series of measures to protect religious minorities,
including Muslims. He did not, however, tolerate Judaism and
levied huge taxes on Jews in order to drive them out of the
country.
Criteria
• How did they create their empire
• How did they consolidate or centralize
their empire
• In what way did they provide for the
support of the people
Adam Smith
Wealth of Nations
• Father of capitalism
“It is the object of that system to enrich a great
nation rather by trade and manufactures than
by the improvement and cultivation of land,
rather by the industry of the towns than by
that of the country”
• Mercantilism
Gunpowder
• Saltpeter
– Potassium nitrate
– and Sodium nitrate
• Sulphur
• Charcoal
Hints
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Means
Motive
Land based vs. sea based
Actual routes and primary items of trade
Core – periphery - linkages
Issues of conflict
Universal monarchies/empires
Technologies
Migration of peoples AND ideas