Transcript Western Civilization II HIS-102

Western Civilization II
HIS-102
Unit 10 – World War I
Causes of World War I
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Since the unification of Germany in 1871, the major
European powers began to race for supremacy
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Balance of power
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This included not only having a power base in Europe but
extensive colonies throughout the world
At the same time, the powers worked to maintain a balance of
power to prevent one country or alliance from becoming too
dominant
This led to the development of an intricate system of
national treaties and alliances
Causes of World War I
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In 1879, Germany allied with Austria-Hungary
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Arranged by Bismarck, this was to be a defensive alliance in
case of an attack by Russia
Designed after the Russians defeated the Ottomans in the
Russo-Turkish War and gained considerable control over the
Balkans
In 1882, this alliance was expanded to include Italy
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Italy was in strong competition with France over colonies in
Africa
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Specifically were upset that they lost Tunisia
This created the Triple Alliance
Causes of World War I
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After the signing of the Triple Alliance, the other major
powers of Europe were nervous
Franco-Russian Alliance (1892)
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Would remain in place as long as the Triple Alliance remained
intact
Entente Cordiale (1904)
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Between France and Britain
Recognized certain spheres of influence in Africa and Asia
Recognized French and British colonies in Africa and Asia
French gained free passage through the Suez Canal
Causes of World War I
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Anglo-Russian Entente (1907)
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Finally brought peace between Britain and Russia over
territories in Persia and Afghanistan
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Also played a role in balancing out the growing power of
Germany
Triple Entente (1907)
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Ended the “Great Game”
Designed to balance out the Triple Alliance
Signed by Britain, France, and Russia
Later signed by Portugal, Japan, and Spain
These alliances would leave Europe open to war at even
the slightest of incidents
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European Alliances in 1914
Causes of World War I
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The spark that started World War I would come out of
the Balkans
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Great powers tried to avoid direct intervention
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European powers had been long interested in this region
Lay between two unsteady empires: the Austro-Hungarians and
the Ottoman
Region had sweeping nationalist movements and pan-Slavism
Instead wanted to work their way through a series of alliances
The First Balkan War (1912)
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Serbia, Greece, Bulgaria, and Montenegro against the Ottomans
Causes of World War I
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The Second Balkan War (1913)
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The Austro-Hungarian Empire
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Fought over the spoils of the 1912 war
Suffered from constant ethnic conflict after the reforms of
1867
Many were upset at being excluded from the new government
Austrians occupied and then annexed Bosnia in 1878
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Bosnian Serbs hoped to secede and join the independent
kingdom of Serbia
The Bosnian Serb underground war to achieve this goal
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Archduke Franz
Ferdinand
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(1889-1914)
The July Crisis
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Sarajevo was a hotbed of Serbian resistance
On June 28, 1914, the heir to the Austro-Hungarian
throne, Archduke Francis Ferdinand, traveled through the
city for a parade
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Along the route, he was assassinated by Gavrilo Princip, a
member of the Black Hand
This was a Serbian secret society promoting Pan-Slavism
This led to a chain reaction of events that led to the start
of World War I
On July 5, 1914, Kaiser Wilhelm II promised German
support for the Austrians if they went to war against
Serbia
The July Crisis
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On July 23, 1914, Austria-Hungary delivered an ultimatum
to Serbia
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They wanted to end all opposition to Austria-Hungary in
Serbia
One of the clauses included an official investigation into the
assassination that would be led by Austria-Hungary
The Serbians refused agree to this clause and begin mobilizing
their army
On July 28, Austria declares war against Serbia
As Russia signed an alliance with Serbia, it mobilized its
forces to aid Serbia on July 30
The July Crisis
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Germany issued an ultimatum to Russia
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It requested that Russia stop its mobilization under threat of
war with Germany
Russia refused
Germany declared war on Russian on August 1
Germany also issued an ultimatum to France
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France responded by saying that it would consult its "own
interests“ and began mobilizing its forces
Germany saw this as a negative reply to its ultimatum and
began initializing the Schlieffen Plan on August 1
The July Crisis
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While Germany did have a superior army, it knew it could
not fight a two front war
The Schlieffen Plan was created in 1904 to deal with this
situation
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Germany believed that it would take Russia six weeks to mass
its forces for mobilization
This would give the Germans enough time to attack and
conquer France
The path the army would have to travel through would take
them through Belgium
Britain had a mutual assistance treaty with Belgium from
1839
The July Crisis
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Timeline of the crisis
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August 3 - Germany invaded Belgium and declared war on
France
August 4 - Germany declared war on Belgium and in response
Britain declares war on Germany
August 5 - Austria-Hungary declared war on Russia in
response to their mobilization
August 6 - Serbia declared war on Austria-Hungary
August 10 – France declares war on Austria-Hungary
August 12 – Britain declares war on Austria-Hungary
August 23 – Japan declares war on Germany
August 25 – Austria-Hungary declares war on Japan
August 28 – Austria-Hungary declares war on Belgium
The July Crisis
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“Tragedy of Miscalculations”
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The Ottoman Empire and Bulgaria joined the Triple
Alliance
While Italy was part of the Triple Alliance, it joined the
Allies after being secretly promised additional territory
after the war
Japan also got involved in the war against Germany
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Little diplomatic communication
It wanted Shantung province and a number of German
controlled islands in the Pacific
Spain, Switzerland, the Netherlands, Denmark, Norway,
Sweden and, initially, the U.S. remained neutral
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World War I in Europe
The Early Years of the War
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General observations
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War as national glory and spiritual renewal
War put centuries of progress at risk
Bankers and financiers were most opposed to war—financial
chaos would result
For the young there was the excitement of enlistment
“Over by Christmas”
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A short, limited, and decisive war
Size and bigger armies
Speed and quick offensives
The Early Years of the War
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After invading Belgium and Luxembourg, the Germans
invaded northern France
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They succeeded in taking key industrial areas
Problems with the Schlieffen Plan
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The plan overestimated physical and logistical capabilities
The speed of movement was too much for the troops
Supply lines could not keep up
The resistance of the Belgian army slowed down the troops as
well
Expected an attack from Alsace-Lorraine which never occurred
Also, fears that the Russians would mobilize quickly forced the
German commanders to send troops east and modify the Plan
The Early Years of the War
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Battle of the Marne (September 5-12,1914)
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Also known as the Miracle of Marne
The French stopped the German advance outside of Paris
Troops were sent to the battle line from Paris in taxicabs
After this loss, the Germans abandoned the Schlieffen Plan
Supposedly the German commander, Helmuth von Moltke told
the Wilhelm II “Your Majesty, we have lost the war!”
From that point on, the fighting on the western front was
bogged down into trench warfare
The Early Years of the War
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New weapons
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Artillery, machine guns, and barbed wire
Exploding bullets and liquid fire
Both sides participated in chemical warfare
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On April 22, 1915 at the Second Battle of Ypres, the Germans
released 168 tons chlorine gas on British and French troops,
killing over 5,000
On December 19, 1916, the Germans used a combination of
chlorine/phosgene gas on troops in Nieltje, Belgium, causing
over 1,000 casualties (69 deaths)
While the British and French did use chemical weapons, they
were not nearly as effective as the Germans during the first
two years of the war
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French troops near
Verdun (c. 1916)
Stalemate 1915
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The search for new partners
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In October 1914, the Ottomans closed the Dardanelles
to Allied shipping
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Ottomans joined Germany and Austria in 1914
Italy joined the Allies in May 1915
Bulgaria joined the Central Powers in 1915
Major effect was to expand the war geographically
Entrance to the Black Sea
Threatened Russia’s supply lines
Endangered British control of the Suez Canal
Churchill argued for a naval offensive in the Dardanelles
Stalemate 1915
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Battle of the Dardanelles (February 19, 1915-January 9,
1916)
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Landed at Gallopoli on April 25, 1915
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Incompetent naval leadership
Lacked adequate planning, supply lines, and maps
At the battle of March 8, British had three ships sunk and three
more severely damaged
Fought for seven months and then the British withdrew
Major Allied defeat
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200,000 casualties
Gallipoli did not shift the focus away from the Western Front
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HMS Irresistible (March 18, 1915)
Stalemate 1915
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A war of attrition
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The nature of modern war
The total mobilization of resources
The Allies imposed a naval blockade on Germany
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Germany responded with submarine warfare
Germans sank the Lusitania on May 7, 1915
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Almost 1200 killed
Provoked the animosity of the United States
The blockade stained Germany’s national economy
Stalemate 1915
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Trench warfare
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War as a “matter of holes and ditches”
25,000 miles of trenches from Switzerland to the North
Sea
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Attack, support, and reserve trenches
German trenches as permanent defensive positions,
comfortable amenities
British and French trenches designed as offensive positions
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Poorly constructed
Cold, wet, dirt, lice, and rats
“Wastage”
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Seven thousand British soldiers killed daily
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Trench Warfare
The Great Battles (1916-1917)
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General observations
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Bloodiest battles occurred during 1916–1917
Hundreds of thousands of casualties with little territorial gain
War as carnage
Military planners refused to alter traditional offensive strategies
The “cult of the offensive”
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Little protection against new weapons
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Believed that the troops could break through the lines if there were
enough of them with enough weapons
Men were armed with rifles and bayonets going up against machine
guns
Poor communication between command and the front line
Firepower outpaced mobility
The Great Battles (1916-1917)
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Battle of Verdun (February 21-December 18, 1916)
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This was the longest and one of the deadliest battles of the
war
Germans fired one million shells on the first day alone
There were 976,000 casualties and over 300,000 deaths
The battle represented French determination not only to hold
off the Germans from taking the city but to push them back as
well
On June 23, 1916, General Robert Nivelle issued the famous
order of “"Ils ne passeront pas!” (“They shall not pass!”) which
became a battle cry for the French
The Great Battles (1916-1917)
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Battle of the Somme (July 1–November 18, 1916)
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It was originally planned as an offensive attack against the
Germans
By the time the battle started it had become a way to pull
German troops away from Verdun
On the first day of battle, the British alone suffered from over
57,000 casualties (over 19,000 dead) due to poor planning and
communication
The Allies recovered using a combination of air superiority and
the introduction of the tank but still were not able to make any
significant headway
In the end, the Germans had 600,000 casualties, British
419,000, and the French 194,000
Neither side won—“The War had won”
The Great Battles (1916-1917)
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After the defeats of the Germans at Verdun and the
Somme, the western front was put under the command
of two new generals: Paul von Hindenburg and Erich
Ludendorff
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Hindenburg switched the German army‘s game plan from
offense to defense
He created what came to be known as the Hindenburg Line, a
defensive line of bunkers, barbed wire, machine guns, and
trenches
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Hindenburg Line near Bullecourt
The Great Battles (1916-1917)
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Nivelle Offensive (April 16–May 9, 1917)
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Named after the French commander-in-chief, Robert Nivelle
Allied offensive designed to break through German lines
Failed attempt
120,000 casualties in the first five days
Nivelle was fired after this
Third Battle of Ypres (July 31–November 6 1917)
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Fought for control of the town of Passchendaele near Ypres in
Belgium
Once again, the goal was to break through German lines
British had 300,000 casualties and the Germans as high as
400,000
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Before and after
shot of
Passchendaele
The Eastern Front
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The eastern front was much wider and longer than the
western front
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It went from St. Petersburg to the north down to the Black Sea
in the south
Because of the span of the front, trench warfare was not
implemented
The eastern war began with Russia invading East Prussia
in August 1914
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With the Battle of Tannenburg (August 23-September 2, 1914),
the Russian Second Army was destroyed
In a series of follow-up battles, the First Army was significantly
weakened
The Eastern Front
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By 1915, the Germans decided that their focus should be
on the eastern front
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At the Second Battle of the Masurian Lakes, the Central
Powers under Hindenburg were able to push the Russians back
behind the Vistula River
By that summer, the Russians were pushed out of Poland
Brusilov Offensive (June 4 – August 10, 1916)
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Russian surprise attack against the Austro-Hungarian lines
While it was at first successful, the Russians did not
immediately follow with more troops
It did weaken Austria-Hungary enough to lead to its collapse
The Eastern Front
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A third front opened up in 1915 between Italy and
Austria-Hungary after Italy joined the Allies
The war was not limited to Europe
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Submarines and battleships carried war around the world
Soldiers from the British Empire, New Zealand, Australia,
Canada, India, and French-speaking black Africans all fought on
the western front
British and French battled the Germans in Africa over their
colonies
After the Turks entered the war, they systematically massacred
800,000 Armenians
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European Empires c. 1914
War of Empires
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Europe’s colonies provided soldiers and material support
Britain
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Canada, Australia, New Zealand, India, and South Africa
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Fought on the Western Front, Mesopotamia, and Egypt
800,000 causalities
France
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1.5 million troops from India alone
Used over 600,000 fighters from north and west Africa
Also conscripted 250,000 colonists to work in factories during
the war
Colonies as theaters for armed engagement
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War drew Europe into the Middle East
War of Empires
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Allies pushed the Turks out of Egypt in 1916
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British encourage Arab nationalism
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British were led by Edmund Allenby who pitted various Arab
peoples against the Ottomans
Lawrence of Arabia popularized the Arab style of guerilla
warfare to gain significant territory
Those who allied with the Allies were promised key political
positions
Balfour Declaration
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Arthur Balfour, Britain’s foreign secretary, promoted the
creation of a home for European Jews in Palestine
Irish Revolt
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The British Empire was also vulnerable
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Sinn Féin (“Ourselves Alone”)
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Formed in 1900 for Irish independence
Home Rule Bill passed Parliament (1912)
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Long standing tensions between Irish Catholics and Protestants
“Irish question” tabled with outbreak of war
The Easter Revolt (1916)
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Nationalist revolt on Easter Sunday in Dublin
Plan to smuggle German arms failed
Revolt as military disaster but was a political success
Irish Revolt
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The British military executed the rebels in public
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New Home Rule Bill (1920)
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Created separate parliaments for north and south Ireland
Dominion status granted to Catholic Ireland in 1921
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This drew sympathy from even high British officials
Led to a rise of new nationalism
Guerilla warfare continued on
Civil war erupted over the absorption of Ulster in northern
Ireland
Irish Free State established (1937)
Irish Republic (1945)
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British ammunition factory
The Home Front
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The costs of war: money and manpower
Mobilizing the home front
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Single goal of military victory
“Total war”
Civilians were essential to the war economy
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Produced munitions
Purchased war bonds
Tax hikes, inflation, and material privation (rationing)
Shift from industrial to munitions production
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Increased state control of production and distribution
Germany and the Hindenburg Plan
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Pricing and profit margins were set by individual industrialists
The Home Front
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Women in the war
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Women as symbols of change
Massive numbers entered the munitions industry
Women entered clerical and service sectors
New opportunities for women
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Breaking down restrictions
A new freedom
Vera Brittain, in Testament of Youth, recorded down the new
social norms
The “new woman” was a symbol of freedom and a
disconcerting cultural transformation
The Home Front
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Long-term changes
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Women sent home after the war
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Governments pass “natalist” policies
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Encouraging women to marry and raise children
Birth control
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Giving jobs to veterans
But what of the widows who needed the work?
Difficult to switch back to low-paying traditional employment for
women
First birth control clinic opened up in London in 1921
Universal suffrage: Britain (1918), United States (1919), France
(1945)
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U.S. World War I era
propaganda poster
The Home Front
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Mobilizing men and money
Conscription
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Before 1914, military service seen as a duty, not an option
France called up 8 million men
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2/3s of the population of men age eighteen to forty
British introduced conscription in 1916
Propaganda
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Important in recruitment
Germans defended their Kultur from the “evil” allies
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“May God punish England” was a common phrase
Films, posters, postcards, newspapers
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The absolute necessity of total victory
The Home Front
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Financing the war
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Military spending rose to half a nation’s budget
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Allies borrowed from Britain, who borrowed from the United
States
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Britain owed $4.2 billion after the war was over
Germany printed its own money
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Prior to the war it had only been less than 5%
Increase of 1,000% in the amount of money circulating
Dramatic rise in inflation
Prices rose 400%
People began to starve in both Germany and Austria-Hungary
The Home Front
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By 1917, the strains of war were showing
Declining morale of the troops
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Troops saw their commanders’ strategies as futile
Rise in number of mutinies
Self-mutilation
War neuroses
On the home front
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Shortages of basic supplies (clothing, food, and fuel)
Price of bread and potatoes soared
The Home Front
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Governments moved from restraint to direct control
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Issued ration cards
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Difference between what was allowed and what was available
People continued to starve
Regulation of working hours and wages
Political dissent, violence, and large-scale riots took place
Industrial strikes hit every type of industry
Governments pushed to their limits
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U.S. World War I era
propaganda poster
The Russian Revolution
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Disillusionment with Nicholas II as general
World War I and the February Revolution
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Russia was unable to sustain the political strains of extended
warfare
After 1905, Nicholas was severely unpopular
Corruption in the royal court
Nicholas insisted on personally commanding his army
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Alexandra and Rasputin
Poland and most of the Baltics fell to the Germans
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One million Russian casualties
The Russian Revolution
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Russian army was poorly trained and undersupplied
Domestic discontent
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February 23, 1917: International Women’s Day
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Nicholas faced liberal opposition from the Duma
Soldiers were unwilling to fight
Militant labor movement and a rebellious urban population
In St. Petersburg, women marched demanding food, fuel, and
political reform
Within a few days, a mass strike of 300,000 people
Nicholas sent in the police and military
60,000 troops stationed in Petrograd sided with the revolt
Nicholas abdicated on March 2, 1917
The Russian Revolution
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New centers of power
Provisional government
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Made up of mostly middle-class leaders in the Duma
Wanted to establish a democratic system under constitutional
rule
Set up an election for a constituent assembly
Granted some civil liberties
The Petrograd Soviet
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Organized by Leon Trotsky after the 1905 Revolution
Claimed to be the legitimate power
Pressed for social reform and the redistribution of land
Desired a negotiated settlement with Germany and Austria
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Leon Trotsky
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(1879-1940)
The October Revolution
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Leadership of the Russian Social Democrats split over
revolutionary strategy (1903)
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Bolsheviks (“majority”)
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Mensheviks (“minority”)
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Favored a centralized party of active revolutionaries
Revolution would lead to a socialist regime
Move toward socialism gradually
Supported “bourgeois” or liberal reform
Mensheviks gained control of the party
Lenin
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Russian capitalism made socialism possible
Organizing the new class of industrial workers
Revolutionary zeal and Western Marxism
The October Revolution
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February–October 1917
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Bolshevik demands
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An immediate end to the war
Improvement in working conditions
Redistribution of aristocratic lands to the peasantry
General Kornilov tried to restore order to Petrograd
Lenin called for “Peace, Land, and Bread, Now” and “All Power
to the Soviets”
Bolsheviks won support from workers, soldiers, and peasants
The October Revolution
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October 1917
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Trotsky attacked the Provisional Government on October 24–25
Lenin announced that “all power has passed to the Soviets”
Provisional government flees the Winter Palace
A quick and bloodless revolution
The Bolsheviks in power
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Moved against all political opposition
Expelled parties who disagreed with the Bolsheviks
Dispersed the Constituent Assembly
The one-party dictatorship
Peasant soldiers returned home
The redistribution of land, the nationalization of banks, and workers’
control of factories
The October Revolution
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The Bolsheviks and the war
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Negotiated the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk with Germany (March 1918)
Russia surrendered the Ukraine, Georgia, Finland, Polish territories,
and the Baltic states
Led to civil war
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Not so much a crisis of government, but an absence of government
John Reed and “the ten days that shook he world”
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The Allies: the revolution allowed Germany to win the war on the
Eastern Front
Conservatives: feared a wave of revolution sweeping away other
regimes
Socialists: startled to see a regime gain control so quickly in such a
backward country
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Lenin speaking in Red Square (c. 1918)
Road to German Defeat
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With Russia out of the war, Germany concentrated its
efforts on the Western Front
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They knew that they needed to strike before the U.S. military
was ready
The Allies feared Germany would win the war before the
United States entered the war (April 1917)
On March 21, 1918, Germany launched an all out
offensive that became known as the Spring Offensive or
Ludendorff Offensive
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The Germans got within 50 miles of Paris
By the time the offensive ended in July, German troops had
been reduced, they were exhausted, and the front line was
made even longer
Road to German Defeat
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Battle of Belleau Wood (June 1-16, 1918)
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This was part of the German Spring Offensive
Only a few American Marine troops participated in the battle
but their contributions were significant
The Allies won the battle and the Marines were called the
Teufel Hunden (“Devil Dogs”) by the Germans afterwards for
their fierce fighting
Battle of Chateau-Thierry (July 18, 1918)
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This was part of the Second Battle for the Marne
It was the first time U.S. troops fully participated in a battle
It too was an Allied victory
Road to German Defeat
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Battle of Saint-Mihiel (September 12-19, 1918)
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Over 500,000 American troops fought in this battle and they
outnumbered the Germans 9-1
It was the first solo battle by U.S. forces with the goal of
capturing the city of Metz
The troops were able to easily defeat the retreating Germans
Battle for Argonne Forest (September 26 – November 11,
1918)
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This was the final push against the Germans with over
1,200,000 U.S. troops participating
The front was over 200 miles long
The Germans were forced to seek a cease-fire after this
Road to German Defeat

Countries started signing separate peace agreements to
bring an end to the war
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September 29, 1918 – Bulgaria first sued for peace
September 30 – Ottoman empire surrendered
November 3 – Austria-Hungary sued for peace after the
overthrow of the Habsburg monarchy
November 9 – Kaiser Wilhelm II abdicated the throne and fled
to the Netherlands; a republic was created in Germany
On November 11, 1918 an armistice was signed between
the Allies and the new German republic
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A cease-fire began at 11am that day
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Wounded British soldiers near Bernafay Wood following
fighting on Bazentin Ridge
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(July 19, 1916)
The Numbers

By the time the war ended on November 11, 1918, there
was a total of over 40 million casualties from the war,
both military and civilian
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This breaks down to approximately 20 million deaths and 21
million wounded
There were 9.7 million military deaths and about 10 million
civilian deaths
The Central Powers had over 9.2 million military and
civilian deaths and over 8.4 million wounded
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Germany had over 2.4 million deaths with over 4.3 million
wounded
The Ottoman Empire had over 5 million deaths and 400,000
wounded
The Numbers

The Allies in total had over 9.3 million military and civilian
deaths with 12.8 million wounded
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Great Britain had just under one million deaths and over 1.6
million wounded
France had just under 1.7 million deaths and over 4.2 million
wounded
Russia had over 3.3 million deaths and just under 5 million
wounded
The U.S. had just over 116,000 deaths and just over 200,000
wounded
Half of the U.S. deaths came from disease rather than battle,
especially the flu epidemic
Prime Minister Lloyd George (Britain), President Vittorio
Orlando (Italy), President Georges Clemenceau (France), and
Woodrow Wilson

Versailles Peace Conference


President Woodrow Wilson headed the U.S. delegation to
the peace conference at Versailles
David Lloyd George of England, Georges Clemenceau of
France and Vittorio Orlando of Italy were less impressed
with the president and his plans


Even though Wilson was considered naïve, he was a good
negotiator and was able to get some concessions through
Europe carved up without regard to language or ethnic
divisions

Led to challenges to stability in the 1930s
Versailles Peace Conference

The Austro-Hungarian empire was dissolved

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The new countries of Austria, Hungary and Yugoslavia were
created out of it
The conference also created Poland, Czechoslovakia,
Finland, Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania

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This was mostly done to curb the growing threat of the
Bolsheviks in eastern Europe
There was also the creation of the Polish Corridor to give the
country the warm water port of Danzig, but this divided up
Germany into two separate parts

Germany after 1918
Versailles Peace Conference

France was to occupy the industrial Saar region of
Germany for 15 years
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After that, a plebiscite would be held to see if the region would
become part of France or Germany
Italy gained the port of Triest but not the neighboring and
Italian speaking city of Fiume
Germany’s colonies were to be divided up between
Britain, France, and Japan

Wilson was forced to accept a mandate system where Britain
would get control of the Middle East while Japan got
Germany’s colonies in the Pacific and China
Versailles Peace Conference

The end of the Ottoman empire
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Little was done about reforming colonial rule
The biggest concern was that all these decisions made
without the input of small European nations or any input
from Soviet Russia
Even more severe penalties were placed on the Germans
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Germany was forced to pay reparations of $35 billion
It lost much of its oil and coal territory
Its army was to be reduced in size
It had to admit war guilt (Article 231)
Versailles Peace Conference

A lot of sides were unhappy with the terms of the treaty
and did not represent the “peace without victory” Wilson
had hoped for
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German people felt betrayed
Japan felt slighted as they did not play a major role in
negotiations
Italians were angry because received less territory than
expected
Wilson also did not win approval for freedom of the seas or
the abolition of trade barriers
Versailles Peace Conference

The only good thing for Wilson was the approval of the
League of Nations
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It had a council of the five great powers, with elected delegates
from smaller countries
A World Court was to be set up to settle disputes
Article X was key to international peace as it pledged all
members “to respect and preserve against external aggression
the territorial integrity” of all other members
The Treaty of Versailles was signed on June 28, 1919

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This ended six long months of negotiations
Many aspects of this treaty would lead up to the Great
Depression and World War II

The Signing of the
Peace in the Hall of
Mirrors

By William Orpen