Transcript HI136 The History of Germany Lecture 1

HI136 The History of Germany
Lecture 1
Germany’s ‘Special Path’
What comes to mind
when you think of
Germany and the
Germans?
J. S. Bach (1685-1750)
Emmanuel Kant (1724-1804)
Ludwig van Beethoven (1770-1827)
Bertold Brecht (1898-1956)
Martin Heidegger (1889-1976)
Geprge Grosz (1893-1959)
Module Themes
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The Making of the modern German state and
society.
Germany’s transformation from maverick to
model state.
Diversity.
Germany’s ‘Special Path’ (Sonderweg).
Germany’s ‘special path’ (Deutscher Sonderweg)
Distinctive German way to modernity which contrasts with the standard
(West European, British, French) way
 Industrialization: belated industrial revolution, several decades after
that of England
 Failed bourgeois revolution in Germany (defeat of the democratic
revolution of 1848)
 German unification not a result of the success of a liberal and
democratic movement but created by the militarist Prussian state
(born in war)
 Weimar republic not accepted by large part of the population, seen
as a result of the defeat and forced onto Germany by the victorious
Entente
 Continuous dominance of antidemocratic, reactionary elites
(ostelbian agrarians, estate owners and “big business”)
 Traditions of Prussian militarism
 Culminating in: Third Reich, seen as logical result of the German
“special path”
The Holy Roman Empire, 800-1806
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The ‘loose association of territories that preceded the creation of the
modern German state.’ (Tim Kirk)
Usually considered to have come into being with the coronation of
Charlemagne as ‘Emperor of the Romans’ in 800, but the term Holy
Roman Empire of the German Nation (Heiliges Römisches Reich
deutscher Nation) was formally adopted in 1512.
At its greatest extent it encompassed modern-day Germany, Austria,
Switzerland, Holland, Belgium and parts of France and Italy.
After the Treaty of Westphalia (1648) which ended the Thirty Years
War there were still 234 territories and 51 ‘Imperial Cities’.
The territories that made up the HRE were self-governing, but their
sovereigns owed allegiance to the Emperor, who was elected by 7
Elector-Princes (3 ecclesiastical, 4 secular).
Rudolf von Habsburg, Duke of Austria, became Emperor in 1273.
His descendents ruled the Empire off and on until it was abolished.
From the 15th Century there were no non-Habsburg Emperors.
The Holy Roman Empire was formally dissolved on 6 August 1806
by the Treaty of Pressburg, after the defeat of Austria by Napoleon.
The Holy Roman Empire in 1789
The French Revolution and
Napoleonic Wars, 1789-1815
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Exported the principles of liberty, equality and brotherhood (Liberté,
égalité, fraternité)
Broke the power of the old Monarchical regimes and states in
Central Europe.
Saw the emergence of the idea of ‘Nationalism’ – the term first
appeared in the writings of the Jesuit Abbé Barruel in 1798
‘The Revolutionary and Napoleonic wars witnessed the first upsurge
of Nationalism in European history, partly under the inspiration of the
French armies and message of liberation, partly in reaction against
those armies and the realities of occupation and oppression.’
Robert Gildea, Barricades and Borders: Europe 1800-1914 (Oxford:
OUP, 1996)
Effects on Germany
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German nationalists, liberals and Romantics initially welcomed the French
revolution and saw the French armies as liberators.
1805: Defeat of Austria at the Battle of Austerlitz
1806: Defeat of Prussia at the twin battles of Jena & Auerstadt
Napoleonic re-ordering of Germany: Holy Roman Empire abolished
Number of states reduced to 39
Puppet rulers installed in German states
Confederation of the Rhine formed
French legal system imposed
Napoleon’s German campaigns and the experience of occupation turned
popular and liberal nationalist sentiment against Napoleon.
Johann Gottlieb Fichte (1762-1814)
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Dismissed as professor of
philosophy at the University
of Jena in 1799 for his
support of the French
Revolution.
Addresses to the German Nation
(1807-08):
Argued
that
France now represented
despotism and that it was
therefore up to ‘the German
nation’ to be the champion
of liberty. The Volk (people)
should thus rise up and drive
out the invader.
Effects on Germany
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German nationalists, liberals and Romantics initially welcomed the French
revolution and saw the French armies as liberators.
1805: Defeat of Austria at the Battle of Austerlitz
1806: Defeat of Prussia at the twin battles of Jena & Auerstadt
Napoleonic re-ordering of Germany: Holy Roman Empire abolished
Number of states reduced to 39
Puppet rulers installed in German states
Confederation of the Rhine formed
French legal system imposed
Napoleon’s German campaigns and the experience of occupation turned
popular and liberal nationalist sentiment against Napoleon.
1813-14: Wars of Liberation.
The Congress of Vienna, 1814-15
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Restored deposed monarchs
to their thrones and sought to
re-establish the ancien régime
in Europe.
Granted Prussia extensive
territory in the Rhineland – the
population of the Kingdom of
Prussia doubled overnight.
Established the German
Confederation.
The German Confederation
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Made up of 39 German States
Designed to help preserve the status quo rather than as
a basis for a United Germany.
The Austrian Chancellor Metternich saw it as a means of
preserving Austrian dominance over Germany.
The Federal Diet (parliament) met at Frankfurt and was
made up of (unelected) representatives of all the states.
It was always chaired by the Austrian representative. In
theory the Diet could appoint ambassadors, negotiate
treaties on behalf of members and organize a Federal
Army. In practice little was ever done because the
unanimous agreement of all 39 states was required.
What is a Nation?
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Johann Gottfried von Herder (17441803): The Volk (‘nation’ or ‘race’) is
the decisive determinant of human
identity. The nation is therefore
identified not with the state (which is
an artificial body), but with the ‘organic
body’ of the Volk.
Johann Goethe (1749-1832): No need
for a nation-state – Germany was a
‘cultural community’ like Ancient
Greece.
Geog Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel (17701831): An individual only achieved
their full potential through service to
the state.
German nationalism based on the idea
of a racial/cultural community with
shared language, history, traditions,
myths etc.
“A nation can therefore be defined as
 a named human population
 sharing an historic territory,
 common myths and historical memories,
 a mass public culture,
 a common economy
 and common legal rights and duties for all
members.”
Anthony D. Smith, National Identity (Reno, Las Vegas, London) 1991, p. 14.
Where is Germany?
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Both The Kingdom of Prussia and the Austrian Empire
incorporated territory outside the German Confederation
and non-German citizens.
Grossdeutschland (Greater Germany) – would
incorporate the German-speaking parts of the Austrian
Empire and would maintain Catholic Austria’s leadership
of Germany.
Kleindeutschland (Little Germany) – would exclude
Austria but include the whole of Prussia (including her
‘Polish’ territories), leaving Protestant Prussia as the
dominant German state.
The Revolutions of 1848
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Causes: Economic Crisis (1846-47)
Demographic change (growing population, urbanization etc.)
Poor harvests leading to famine
Cholera epidemic
Dissatisfaction with conservative political climate
24 Feb. 1848: Revolution in France – King Louis Philippe overthrown and a Republic
established.
13 March: Demonstrations in Vienna lead to the fall of Metternich
24 October: The Austrian Emperor Ferdinand (1835-48) abdicates in favour of his nephew
Franz Josef (1848-1916).
13 March: Prussian troops fire on demonstrators in the palace square in Berlin, leading to 2 days
of rioting
16 March: News of Metternich’s fall reaches Berlin. King Friedrich Wilhelm IV (1840-61) agrees
in principle to a new constitution, parliament and an end to censorship.
18 March: More fighting in Berlin – at least 300 rioters killed by the Army.
21 March: Friedrich Wilhelm grants a series of reforms including the appointment of a liberal
ministry.
August-November: The Prussian King reasserts his control. Martial Law is introduced in
November and the liberal constitution and parliament overturned.
The Frankfurt Parliament
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5 March 1848: The Heidelberg Declaration: calls
for a single German state governed by a united
German parliament.
31 March: 574 representatives from the German
states met in Frankfurt to agree on what form the
new German parliament would take (the
Vorparlament).
After elections in April the parliament met in
Frankfurt in May 1848. It was largely made up of
liberal middle-class professionals (teachers, lawyers
etc.) and was moderate in character.
The Assembly soon became bogged down in
debate over what form a united Germany should
take and how it should be governed.
June: A provisional government led by the
Habsburg Archduke John was elected, but it had
no real power and an ill-defined role.
March 1849: A Constitution for a united German
Empire agreed and the Imperial crown was
offered to the King of Prussia, who refused it.
The rulers of Bavaria, Saxony and Hanover also
rejected the Constitution.
May 1849: The parliament expelled from
Frankfurt and moved to Stuttgart.
June 1849: The parliament forcibly broken up by
the King of Württemberg’ s troops.
The Zollverein
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Prussian Tariff Reform Law
(1818): Designed to protect
Prussian industry from cheap
imports & break down internal
barriers to free trade.
1818-34:
Prussia
tried
to
encourage free trade within
Germany by forming customs
unions with neighbouring states.
By 1836 the Prussian Customs
Union (Zollverein) was made up of
25 states with a population of 26
million. Trade barriers & customs
duties between members were
abolished and there were moves
towards standardization of weights
and measures and currency.
The Development of Prussia
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Economic boom in the 1850s: industrial production,
foreign trade & railway building all doubled between
1851 and 1858.
1850-58: Minister-President Otto von Manteuffel pursued
a policy of trying to bolster support for the monarchy
through limited social (but not political) reform.
1858: Friedrich Wilhelm IV declared insane and his
brother Wilhelm becomes regent.
Wilhelm I (1861-1858)
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Born in 1797 in Berlin
A soldier by training and a
conservative by instinct
Fought against Napoleon in
the Wars of Liberation &
Waterloo Campaign
Staunch
opponent
of
Revolution
A devout Protestant, he
believed
that
he
was
answerable only to God.
The Development of Prussia
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Economic boom in the 1850s: industrial production, foreign trade &
railway building all doubled between 1851 and 1858.
1850-58: Minister-President Otto von Manteuffel pursued a policy of
trying to bolster support for the monarchy through limited social (but
not political) reform.
1858: Friedrich Wilhelm IV declared insane and his brother Wilhelm
becomes regent.
1858: The ‘New Era’ – Wilhelm appoints a mixed ministry of liberals
and conservatives and the Liberals gain 55% of the seats in the
Prussian Diet.
1860: Army Reform Bill
1860-1862: Constitutional Conflict.
1862: Otto von Bismarck appointed Minister-President.
Austro-Prussian Conflict
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1849-50: Austrian attempts to join the Zollverein come to nothing,
leaving Austria as the political leader of the German Confederation,
but economically isolated.
1850: The ‘Capitulation at Olmutz’ – Prussia forced to abandon her
plan to replace the German Confederation with a union led jointly by
Prussia and Austria.
1862: Bismarck demanded that Austria recognize Prussia as its
equal within Germany.
1864: German-Danish War – Austria & Prussia co-operate to
prevent Denmark from annexing the Duchies of Schleswig and
Holstein. By the terms of the Convention of Gastein Schelswig was
ceded to Prussia and Holstein to Austria.
1866: Seven Weeks (Austro-Prussian) War – Austria brings an
action against Prussia in the Federal Diet & Prussia walks out
declaring the end of the German Confederation. Prussia decisively
defeats Austria a Sadowa (Königgrätz) on 3 July.
Prussia Ascendant
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Prussia annexed Frankfurt, Hesse-Kassel, Hanover and
Nassau, as well as Schleswig and Holstein.
Formed the North German Confederation with Saxony,
Mecklenburg, Oldenburg and Thuringia.
Secret alliances signed with the South German states
(Bavaria, Baden and Württemberg).
The North German Confederation, 1866-71
Prussia Ascendant
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Prussia annexed Frankfurt, Hesse-Kassel, Hanover and
Nassau, as well as Schleswig and Holstein.
Formed the North German Confederation with Saxony,
Mecklenburg, Oldenburg and Thuringia.
Secret alliances signed with the South German states
(Bavaria, Baden and Württemberg).
Austria excluded from Germany once and for all.
1870-71: Franco-Prussian War
18 January 1871: Proclamation of the German Empire in
the Hall of Mirrors in the Palace of Versailles.
‘Proclamation of German Unification’ (1888) by Anton von Werner