Transcript Cold War & Recovery

Cold War & Recovery
1945-1968
Roots of Cold War
 Teheran Conference, 1943: USSR guaranteed to be
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only power to liberate Eastern Europe
Yalta Conference, 1945:
Stalin pledged to allow democratic elections in E. Europe
(but later reneged)
Germany would be divided into four zones controlled by
U.S., France, Britain and USSR
After war, Soviets dominated their zone and did not allow
reunification of Germany
Potsdam Conference, 1945:
Truman demanded free elections in Eastern Europe but
Stalin refused
Stalin wanted a "buffer zone" between Germany and
USSR for protection against future war
Roots of Cold War
 U.S. point of view:
 Stalin seemed intent on creating "spheres" of
influence in Eastern Europe
 Broke pledges at Yalta; refused to allow
reunification of Germany
 Churchill's "Iron Curtain" speech in 1946
alerted Americans to a future conflict
 U.S. wanted democracy spread throughout the
world with a strong international organization to
maintain global peace
Roots of Cold War
 Soviet point of view:
 Democracies traditionally hostile towards communism
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and the USSR
 Ex: non-recognition by U.S. until 1933
US & Britain did not open western front in Europe early
enough; millions of Soviet soldiers were dying fighting
the brunt of Nazi armies alone until mid-1944.
The US and Britain froze Russia out of the atomic bomb
project.
US terminated lend-lease to Moscow in May 1945 but
gave Britain aid until 1946.
Wanted "buffer zone" for the Soviet western border esp.
in Poland
Partition of Germany
 USSR, U.S., Britain & France would each
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occupy a part of Germany but would allow for
German reunification once she was no longer a
threat.
Germany was to pay heavy reparations to USSR
in form of agricultural and industrial goods.
Soviets dominated their Eastern German zone
Did not want revitalized Germany that could
once again pose a threat.
Stripped E. Germany of much of its resources.
Partition of Germany
 U.S. and W. Europeans felt German economy
vital to recovery of Europe
 1949, West Germany became an independent
country when US, France and Britain gave back
each of their zones
 Federal Republic of Germany – led by Konrad
Adenauer
 1949, East Germany formally established –
Democratic Republic of Germany led by
Walter Ulbricht (1883-1973); communist regime
influenced by Moscow
"Containment"
 By 1947, US pledged to prevent further
spread of communism
 Truman Doctrine, 1947: U.S. gave aid to
Greece and Turkey to defeat communist
forces there.
Marshall Plan
 1947: Massive aid package to help war-torn
Europe recover from the war
 Purpose: prevent communism from spreading
into economically devastated regions
 Result: Western and Central Europe recovered
economically -- the "economic miracle"
 Soviets refused to allow U.S. aid to countries in
eastern Europe
Berlin Crisis (1948-49)
 Soviets attempted to remove Allies from
Berlin by cutting off access of goods to
Germans in the Allied-controlled section
 One of high tension points of the Cold
War; World War III?
 U.S. instituted a massive airlift; Soviets
lifted blockade in 1949 (Berlin Airlift)
More Containment
 North Atlantic Treaty Organization
(NATO) formed in 1949
 Collective security organization consisting
of democracies in Europe, U.S. & Canada
to prevent against Soviet expansion in
Europe.
 Radio Free Europe & Voice of America
set up to send pro-democracy messages
to countries behind the "iron curtain"
Eastern Bloc
 Countries in Eastern Europe dominated by Soviet Union
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after WWII
Included Poland, Hungary, Czechoslovakia, East
Germany, Rumania, Bulgaria
Communist parties of eastern Europe established oneparty states by 1948, with help of Red Army and KGB
(Soviet secret police)
Only Yugoslavia, led by Marshal Tito, is not dominated
by Soviets
Postwar economic recovery in eastern Europe
proceeded along Soviet lines.
Changes went forward at slow & uneven pace; came to
almost a halt by the mid-1960s.
Five-year plans in USSR reintroduced to tackle massive
economic reconstruction
Eastern Bloc
 Stalin reinstitutes oppressive rule
 Great Patriotic War of the Fatherland had fostered
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Russian nationalism and a relaxation of dictatorial terror.
Stalin’s new foe, the U.S., provided an excuse for reestablishing harsh dictatorship.
After war, Stalin repressed millions of Soviet citizens
living outside Soviet borders when the war ended.
Stalin revived many forced labor camp, which had
accounted for roughly 1/6 of all new construction in
Soviet Union before the war
Culture and art were also purged
Czechoslovakia
 Czechoslovakia the economic exception in E.
Europe: industrialized, strong middle class and
industrial working class and experience of
political democracy between the wars.
 During “dualist period", President Benes and
Foreign minister Jan Masaryk proposed to
govern a social democracy while maintaining
close voluntary relations with the USSR.
 In response to Marshall Plan in 1947, Stalin
replaced gov’t in 1948 with 1-party communist
rule to prevent nation from courting the West.
USSR under Nikita
Khrushchev (1894-1971)
Khrushchev
 Power struggle emerged after Stalin died in
1953; Khrushchev emerged a few years later
 Stalin’s heirs realized reforms were needed.
 Widespread fear and hatred of Stalin’s political terror
resulted in reduction of power of secret police and
gradual closure of forced labor camps.
 Agriculture in bad shape.
 Shortages of consumer goods.
 Hard work and initiative in decline due to poor living
conditions.
De-Stalinization
 XXth Party Congress, 1956: Khrushchev took
startling initiative against hard-liners by
denouncing Stalin’s crimes in a closed session.
 Secret anti-Stalin speech probably most
influential statement in Russia since Lenin
addressed the crowd on arriving in April 1917.
 Gosplan: Resources shifted from heavy
industry and the military toward consumer goods
and agriculture – Centralized Economic
Planning
De-Stalinization
 Great ferment in the arts (anti-Stalinist views
tolerated)
 Boris Pasternak (1890-1960) wrote Dr. Zhivago
in 1956.
 Story of prerevolutionary intellectual who rejects
brutality of revolution of 1917 & Stalinism; even as he
is destroyed, he triumphs from his humanity and
Christian spirit.
 Aleksandr Solzenitsyn: One Day in the Life of
Ivan Denisovich (1962)
 Portrays in grim detail life in Stalinist concentration
camp (he had been a prisoner)
De-Stalinization
 De-Stalinization resulted in communist reformers
and the masses seeking greater liberty and
national independence.
 Poland: March 1956, riots resulted in release of
more than 9000 political prisoners, including
previously purged leader Wladyslaw Gomulka.
 Gomulka skillfully managed to win greater
autonomy for Poland while keeping anti-Soviet
feeling at bay.
Hungarian Uprising 1956
 Students and workers in Budapest installed a
liberal Communist reformer, Imre Nagy as new
chief in October 1956.
 Hungarian nationalists staged huge
demonstrations demanding non-communist
parties be legalized; turned into armed rebellion
and spread throughout the country.
 Hoped U.S. would come in and help achieve
Hungarian independence
Hungarian Uprising 1956
 Soviet tanks and troops
responded by invading Hungary
and crushing the national
democratic revolution.
 János Kádár installed firm
communist rule
 After Hungarian invasion, most
eastern Europeans hoped for
small domestic gains while
obediently following USSR in
foreign affairs.
Post-War Political and Economic
Framework
 Bretton Woods Conference (1944): created
International Monetary Fund (IMF)
 Lay foundations for modern monetary system; based on
U.S. dollar
 IMF (World Bank) designed to loan money to struggling
countries to prevent economic crises and anarchy;
instrumental in post-war economic boom.
 United Nations created in 1945: Security Council (12
nations including 5 permanent members had powers to
act; General Assembly had powers to advise (included
all nations of the world)
Western Europe Political
Recovery
 Economic hardship after WWII: scarcity of
food, runaway inflation, black markets
 Many people believed Europe was
finished.
 Suffering was worst in Germany
Western Europe Political
Recovery
 Political restructuring
 Christian Democrats inspired by common Christian and
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European heritage.
Rejected authoritarianism & narrow nationalism; had
faith in democracy and cooperation.
Catholic parties also progressive in nature
Socialists and Communists also emerged with
increased power and prestige, especially in France and
Italy.
Pushed for social change and economic reform with
considerable success.
Result: social reform and political transformation created
foundations for a great European renaissance.
Western Europe Political
Recovery - Italy
 Christian Democrats gained control in
1946 led by Alcide De Gasperi
 Socialist influence: social benefits came to
equal a large part of the average worker’s
wages
Western Europe Political
Recovery - France
 General Charles De Gaulle, inspiring wartime
leader of Free French, re-established free and
democratic Fourth Republic (resigned in 1949)
 Catholic party provided some of best postwar
leaders e.g. Robert Schuman
 Socialist influence: large banks, insurance
companies, public utilities, coal mines, and the
Renault auto company were nationalized by
gov’t.
 Britain followed same trend
Western Europe Political
Recovery - West Germany
 1949, Konrad Adenauer began long,
highly successful democratic rule.
 Christian Democrats became West
Germany’s majority party for a generation
Western Europe Political
Recovery – Great Britain
 Clement Attlee, socialist Labour party
leader, defeated Winston Churchill and the
Conservatives in 1945.
 Attlee moved toward establishment of a
“welfare state.”
 Many industries nationalized, gov’t
provided each citizen with free medical
service and taxed the middle and upper
classes more heavily.
“Economic Miracle”
 Unprecedented economic growth in
European history
 Europe entered period of rapid economic
progress lasting into late 1960s.
 By 1963, western Europe produced more
than 2.5X more than before the war.
“Economic Miracle”
 Causes:
 Marshall Plan aid helped western Europe begin recovery
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in 1947
Korean War in 1950 stimulated economic activity.
Economic growth became a basic objective of all
western European governments.
Governments accepted Keynesian economics to
stimulate their economies.
Germany and France were especially successful and
influential.
In most countries many people willing to work hard for
low wages; expanding industries benefited.
Increased demand for consumer goods.
Many economic barriers eliminated and a large unified
market emerged: Common Market.
“Economic Miracle”
 German economic recovery led by finance
minister Ludwig Erhard
 Combined free-market economy &
extensive social welfare network inherited
from Nazi era.
 By late 1950s, West Germany had robust
economy, full employment, a strong
currency and stable prices.
“Economic Miracle”
 France
 Combined flexible planning and a “mixed” state
and private economy to achieve most rapid
economic development in its history.
 Jean Monnet: economic pragmatist and
architect of European unity.
 France used Marshall Plan aid money and the
nationalized banks to funnel money into key
industries, several of which were state owned.
European Unity
Council of Europe:
Created in 1948
 European federalists hoped Council would
quickly evolve into a true European
parliament with sovereign rights, but this
did not happen.
 Britain, with its empire and its “special
relationship” with U.S., opposed giving any
real political power—sovereignty—to the
council.
Schuman Plan
 1950 created the European Coal and Steel
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Community
Put forth by French statesman Jean Monnet and Foreign
Minister Robert Schuman.
Special international organization to control & integrate
European steel and coal production.
West Germany, Italy, Belgium, Netherlands, &
Luxembourg accepted in 1952; Britain refused to enter
Immediate economic goal: a single competitive market
w/o national tariffs or quotas.
"The Six": By 1958 coal and steel moved freely among
six nations of the European Coal and Steel Community
Far-reaching political goal: bind six member nations so
closely together economically that war among them
would become unthinkable and virtually impossible.
European Economic Community
(EEC)
 Treaty of Rome, 1957
 Created European Economic Community (EEC) or the
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Common Market
Signed by same six nations in the Schuman Plan – “the
Six”
First goal of treaty: Gradual reduction of all tariffs among
the Six in order to create a single market almost as large
as the U.S.
Other goals:
Free movement of capital and labor.
Common economic policies and institutions.
Tariffs were rapidly reduced and regions specialized in
what they did best.
European Economic Community
(EEC)
 EEC encouraged hopes of political and
economic union.
 Union frustrated in 1960s by resurgence of
more traditional nationalism.
 Euratom (European Atomic Energy
Agency) also created by agency.
 Communist states responded by forming
their own economic association-COMECON
France Steps Back from European
Unity
 Bitter colonial war in Algeria resulted in the
election in 1958 of General De Gaulle who
established the Fifth French Republic and
ruled as president until 1969.
 Withdrew France from "US controlled" NATO
and developed own nuclear weapons program.
 De Gaulle twice vetoed application of proAmerican British to European Union.
 Britain did not inter until 1973.
Cold War in the 1950’s
Events
 1949, Communists in China led by Mao
Zedong win Chinese revolution
 Establish "Peoples Republic of China"
("Red China")
 1949, Soviets successfully test atomic
bomb
Korean War 1950-1953
 After WWII, Korea divided at 38th parallel: North was
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communist, South was not
Cause: 1950, North Korea invaded South Korea
(supported by Soviet resources)
UN (led by US & Gen. Douglas MacArthur) sent forces
to push back communists
Soviets boycotting UN for U.S. refusal to allow "Red
China" into UN Security Council
China sends hundreds of thousands of troops to push
back UN
Result: cease-fire and border at 38th parallel restored;
still in existence today
Korean War
Hydrogen Bomb
 Developed by US in 1952 & USSR in 1953:
world now has two superpowers
Warsaw Pact 1955
 Collective security organization of eastern bloc
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nations to counter NATO.
U.S. policy of "massive retaliation" between
1953-55
U.S. policy now is to help eastern European
countries remove communism.
U.S. vows to destroy USSR with nuclear
weapons if it tries to expand
Brinksmanship: the art of going to the brink of
war to force the other side t back down.
Relations b/n USSR & U.S.
Improve w/ Ascension to power of
Nikita Khrushchev
 Seeks “peaceful coexistence” with the
West in order to focus on Soviet economy
 Austrian Independence: USSR agreed in
1955 to real independence for a neutral
Austria after 10 years of Allied occupation.
 Resulted in significant reduction in cold
war tensions between 1955 & 1957.
Relations b/n USSR & U.S.
Improve w/ Ascension to power of
Nikita Khrushchev
 Krushchev sought to prove communism was superior to
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capitalism and the USSR would be the model communist
state in the world; "we will bury you.”
Krushchev began wooing new nations of Asia and Africa
with promises and aid, even if they were not communist.
Geneva Summit -- 1955 (July)
US meets with USSR, Britain, & France to begin
discussions on European security and disarmament; no
agreements made
1958, relations sour with Khrushchev's ultimatum for
Allies to leave Berlin: 6 month deadline passes without
incident, extended indefinitely
Cold War in 1960’s
U-2 Incident
 U.S. spy plane shot
down over USSR
 Khrushchev
demanded an
apology from
Eisenhower;
Eisenhower refused
 Khrushchev and
Eisenhower aborted
Berlin Wall: Built in 1961
 2 million East Germans escaped to West Berlin
between 1949-1961; Soviets frustrated
 Khrushchev threatened President Kennedy:
USSR would sign peace treaty with East
Germany who would then control access to
Berlin; Soviets would protect East Germany’s
right to control flow into Berlin.
 Berlin Wall built instead of enforcing ultimatum
to U.S.; ended future crises over Berlin
Berlin Wall
Cuba
 Became a communist country in 1959
under leadership of Fidel Castro
 Cuba became an ally of the Soviet Union
 Bay of Pigs Invasion, 1961: U.S.-trained
Cuban exiles tried unsuccessfully to
invade Cuba
Cuban Missile Crisis
 1962: U.S. demanded Soviets remove their
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newly installed nuclear missiles from Cuba.
Crisis became the closest USSR and US came
to nuclear war
U.S. placed blockade (naval quarantine) on any
further missiles into Cuba
Khrushchev agreed to remove missiles in return
for U.S. removing its missiles from Turkey and
vowing not to invade Cuba in the future.
Crisis weakened Khrushchev and contributed to
his downfall in 1964
Cuban Missile Crisis
Nuclear Test Ban Treaty 1963
 Khrushchev, Kennedy & Britain signed historic
treaty banning atmospheric testing in an attempt
to reduce Cold War tensions
 France refused to sign (was in the process of
developing own nuclear weapons program)
 China became a nuclear power in 1964 leading
to its estrangement with Soviet Union
Fall of Khrushchev 1964
 His cold war foreign policies erratic & ultimately
unsuccessful (Berlin, Cuban Missile Crisis)
 Expensive space and armaments programs
postponed any significant shift to consumer
goods.
 Most important reason: agricultural projects
backfired
 Resurgence of conservative Stalinists led to
quiet removal of Khrushchev in October, 1964
Leonid Brezhnev
 Became new General Secretary (1964-1982)
 Beginning in 1964, USSR began a period of
stagnation and limited re-Stalinization
 Massive arms buildup started in response to
humiliation of Cuban Missile Crisis.
USSR avoided direct
confrontation with the U.S. and
seemed more committed to
peaceful coexistence than
Khrushchev had been.
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Vietnam War (1964-1973)
 U.S. fought unsuccessful war in Southeast
Asia to prevent communism from
spreading into South Vietnam.
 “Domino Theory”: U.S. believed if
Vietnam fell to communism, Laos,
Cambodia and Thailand would also fall
(perhaps even India) (1964-1973)
SOCIETY AFTER
WORLD WAR II
Science and Technology
 For first time in history, “pure theoretical” science and
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“practical” technology (”applied science”) effectively
joined together on massive scale during WWII.
British scientists developed radar to detect enemy
aircraft.
Jet aircraft developed by Germany
Electronic computers further developed; had barely
come into existence before 1939.
Manhattan Project: Atomic bomb most spectacular result
of scientific research during the war; project overseen by
J. Robert Oppenheimer
Science and Technology
 “Big Science” became new model for science
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after WWII
Combined theoretical work with sophisticated
engineering in a large, often huge organization.
U.S. emerged as leader in Big Science after
WWII
Science not demobilized after WWII either in
U.S. or USSR
Large portion of all postwar scientific research
went for “defense” (25%!)
Space Race
 (Part of Cold War competition to achieve
technological superiority)
 1957, USSR launched Sputnik, an
orbiting satellite using long-range rockets
 US fearful Soviets could now launch a
nuclear missile into space and then down
to U.S.
 Resulted in development of ICBMs
(Intercontinental Ballistic Missiles)
Space Race
 U.S. countered with creation of NASA and vastly
increased educational funding for science.
 1961, Soviets sent world’s first cosmonaut, Yuri
Gagarin, into orbit.
 President John F. Kennedy responded by
increasing funds for space.
 1969, Apollo Program put first man on the
moon; 4 more moon landings followed by 1972.
“Brain Drain”
 U.S. attracted many of Europe’s best scientists
during 1950s and 1960s—seen as the American
Challenge
 Some Europeans feared Europe was falling
behind U.S. in science, technology, and most
dynamic industrial sectors of the late 20th
century.
 Yet, revitalized Europe pooling resources on Big
Science projects:
 Concorde supersonic passenger airliner and
peaceful uses of atomic energy.
Massive Growth of Scientific
Community
 Four times as many scientists in Europe
and North America in 1975 as in 1945.
 Highly specialized modern scientists and
technologists worked as members of a
team, which completely changed work and
lifestyle of modern scientists.
 James Watson and Francis Crick win
Nobel Prize in 1962 for discovering
structure of DNA
Change in Class Structure and
Social Reform
 Rise of the middle-class largely result of increased
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access to higher education
Structure of lower classes also became more flexible
and open.
Mass exodus from farms and countryside.
Resulted in drastic decline in one of Europe’s most
traditional and least mobile groups.
Industrial working class ceased to expand while job
opportunities for white-collar and service employees
grew rapidly.
European governments reduced class tensions by
further expanding social security reforms: health care,
family allowances, maternity grants, public housing
Change in Class Structure and
Social Reform
 “Gadget revolution”
 Like US, Europeans bought washing machines, vacuum
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cleaners, refrigerators, dishwashers, radios, TVs, and
stereos.
Increased social welfare resulted in more disposable
income and less need to save for old age.
Leisure and recreation
Soccer matches, horse races, movies, TV, commercialized
hobbies
Increased attendance in cultural events: concerts and
exhibitions.
Travel industry mushroomed most dramatically
 Before WWII travel for pleasure or relaxation largely
aristocratic.
 Paid vacations required by law in most countries
The Youth Movement and
Counterculture
 Counter-Culture: rebellion against parents,
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authority figures and status quo
Baby boom after WWII developed distinctive and
international youth culture.
Many raised in economic prosperity and more
democratic class structure.
New generation influenced by revival of leftist
thought created a “counter-culture”
Some youth rebelled against conformity and
boredom of middle-class suburbs.
Rock music helped tie counter-culture together
Student Revolts in the
Late 1960s
Causes of Student Revolts
 Opposition to U.S. war in Vietnam triggered revolutionary
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ferment among youths
Influenced by Marxist current in French universities after
1945 & new left thinking in US
Believed older generation & US fighting immoral &
imperialistic war against Vietnam.
Students in western Europe shared US youth's rejection of
materialism and belief that postwar society was repressive
and flawed.
Problems in higher education: classes overcrowded; little
contact with professors; competition for grades intense;
demanded even more practical areas of study to qualify for
high-paying jobs after college
Some students warned of dangers of narrowly trained
experts ("technocrats") who would serve the establishment
to the detriment of working class.
French Student Revolt 1968
 Students took over the university, leading to violent
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clashes with police.
Most students demanded changes in curriculum and real
voice in running the university
Appealed to industrial workers for help; spontaneous
general strike spread across France
To many it seemed the French Fifth Republic might
collapse
De Gaulle called in troops and called for new elections
(which he won decisively)
The mini-Revolution collapsed.
For much of the older generation in western Europe, the
student revolution of 1968 signaled the end of illusions
and end of an era.
Czechoslovakia
 Due to Khrushchev’s reforms in USSR, 1960s brought
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modest liberalization and more consumer goods to eastern
Europe
1968, reform elements in Czechoslovak Communist party
gained a majority and voted out long-time Stalinist leader.
Alexander Dubcek elected leader: ushered new period of
thaw and rebirth in famous “Prague Spring” of 1968.
Czech reformers building “socialism with a human face”
frightened hard-line communists.
Soviet troops brutally invaded Czechoslovakia in August
1968.
Czechoslovakia became one of most hard-line communist
regimes well into 1980s.
Brezhnev Doctrine: Soviet Union and its allies had right to
intervene in any socialist country whenever they saw the
need
Prague Spring
De-Colonization After
WWII
De-Colonization
 Postwar era saw total collapse of colonial
empires.
 Between 1947 and 1962, almost every
colonial territory gained independence.
 New nations of Asia and Africa deeply
influenced by Western ideas and
achievements.
Causes of De-Colonialization
 Modern nationalism and belief in selfdetermination and racial equality, spread from
intellectuals to the masses in virtually every
colonial territory after WWI.
 Decline of European prestige: Japanese
victories; destruction of Europe during WWII
 After 1945, European powers more concerned
about rebuilding; let colonies go
India
 Played a key role in decolonization and the end of empire.
 Indian National Congress: British had no choice but to
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develop a native political elite that could assist in ruling
such huge country.
Exposure of young Indians to Western ideas of nationalism,
socialism, and democracy led to demands for independence
by the early 20th century.
Mohandas K. Gandhi: after WWI led independence
movement with principle of passive resistance (civil
disobedience)
Jawaharlal Nehru led Congress party in its push for
independence
Clement Attlee and others in Labour party wished to focus
on internal affairs.
Divided India into two nations: India (Hindu) and Pakistan
(Muslim)
Ghandi
China
 After WWII (defeat of Japanese invaders)
a civil war broke out between communists
led by Mao Zedong and Nationalists led
by Jiang Jieshi (Chang kai-shek)
 Mao won the revolution and created a
communist country: People's Republic of
China
Vietnam
 After Japanese removed after WWII, French
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tried to reassert control of Indochina
Ho Chi Minh led the independence movement
in the north
1954, defeated French forces at Dien Bien Phu
1954,Vietnam was divided into North
(communist) and South (pro-Western); civil war
resulted
U.S. defeated in attempt to prevent communist
takeover of South Vietnam; Vietnam unified in
1975
Arab Nationalism
 Arab nationalists loosely united by opposition to
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colonialism and migration of Jews to Palestine
Israel and Palestine
Balfour Declaration in 1917 indicated Britain favored
creation of Jewish “national home” in Palestine—
opposed by Saudi Arabia & Transjordan
Great Britain announced its withdrawal from Palestine in
1948.
United Nations voted for creation of two states, one Arab
and one Jewish
Palestinians vowed to fight on until state of Israel
destroyed or until they established own independent
Palestinian state; led to several wars and numerous
conflicts in late 20th century
Egypt
 Arab defeat in 1948 by Israel triggered
nationalist revolution in Egypt in 1952.
 1956, Egyptian president Gamal Abdel Nasser
nationalized the Suez Canal, the last symbol
and substance of Western power in the Middle
East.
 France, Britain and Israel attacked Egypt, trying
to take back control of Suez Canal
 U.S. and Soviet Union demanded their
withdrawal and the canal remained in Egypt's
control