Transcript BISMARCK AND THE UNIFICATION OF GERMANY AS UNIT 3

THE UNIFICATION OF ITALY
1815- 1871
AS UNIT 1
1. ITALY 1815-48:
OVERVIEW OF CONTENT
i. The Vienna Settlement - Why was Unification unlikely in 1815?
ii. What were the forces of change 1815-48? – Legacy of Napoleon and growth of
Liberalism and Nationalism.
iii. The Early Revolutions 1820-21 and 1830-31 – causes, events and consequences
iv. Mazzini, Gioberti and Balbo.
2. Revolutions in Italy 1848-49:
i. General Long term and short term causes of the 1848 Revolutions.
ii. The Revolutions in Sicily and Naples; Lombardy; Venetia; Piedmont; Parma and
Modena; Rome and Tuscany.
iii. Why did the Revolutions fail?
3. The Position of Piedmont 1848-59:
i. The position of Piedmont, Cavour and Garibaldi up to the early 50s.
ii. The Developments in Piedmont 1850-59: Political, economic and Religious
4. The Stages of Unification 1859-71:
Stage 1 – Acquisition of Lombardy.
Stage 2 – Acquisition of Tuscany, Modena, Parma, and Romagna.
Stage 3 – Acquisition of Sicily, Naples and the Papal States.
Stage 4 - Acquisition of Venetia and Rome.
1.
ITALY IN 1815.
THE LEGACY OF NAPOLEON AND THE GROWTH OF
LIBERALISM AND NATIONALISM
ii. What were the forces for Change between 1815 and 1848?
THE LEGACY OF NAPOLEON:
POLITICAL
• Territory re-organised from 11 to 3 states
• Legal uniformity – law standardised
• Representative Government – elected assemblies
• 2 chamber Government in each state.
SOCIAL
• Land redistributed and a commercial middle-class developed
• Church influence was reduced
• Communications improved, street lamps, vaccines
• Meritocracy – could get jobs based on own merits in politics or in military.
ECONOMIC
• New roads
• Improved commerce
• Middle classes could buy monastery land
• Professionals in towns had increased prosperity
• Weights and measures standardised
1.
ITALY IN 1815.
THE VIENNA SETTLEMENT
i. Why was Italian Unification unlikely in 1815?
THE VIENNA SETTLEMENT:
•
This dealt with how Europe was to be divided following the Napoleonic Wars. It had a big
impact on Italy: Politically, Socially and Economically.
POLITICAL IMPACT:
•
The French Code of Law was to be abolished.
•
Territory was to be divided into 7 states under the Austrian or Legitimate Monarchs
control.
•
In the Papal States, control was given back to the Church.
•
In Sicily the King cancelled the Constitution.
ECONOMIC IMPACT:
•
In Piedmont the old customs barriers were re-introduced.
•
The use of the new roads were discouraged.
•
Nobles were given back their land.
SOCIAL IMPACT:
•
Middle Class were dismissed from their jobs which were returned to the nobles.
•
Education control went back to the Church.
GROUPS PUSHING FOR CHANGE:
EXTREMISTS
Wanted Italy to become a Republic under an elected President
Elected Parliament
Democracy one man, one vote.
RADICALS
Retain monarchs with ‘limited’ powers
Elected assembly
One man, one vote
Freedom of press
Individual freedom
MODERATES
Retain monarchs with considerable powers
2 Parliamentary chambers – 1 elected
Votes restricted to wealthy.
LIBERALS
Middle classes, non-violent, distrusted Absolute Monarchs and Republics.
Wanted Constitutional Monarchy
SECRET SOCIETIES
Wide variety of members, usually educated and middle class
E.g. Carbonari – patriotic and idealist.
All wanted different things e.g. Anti-Catholic, armed revolution, Constitutional
Monarchy etc.
Main reason why they failed = different aims.
THE EARLY REVOLUTIONS OF 1820 – 21
1820 NAPLES
Causes?
King Ferdinand had increased church power; reduced freedom of speech; cut back spending on
roads and education which led to Poverty and a corrupt Government. This in turn led to Discontent.
Agricultural prices dropped which affected Sicily greatly
Events?
Priests, Soldiers and 30 Carbonari members advanced on Avellino which led to an uprising
General Pepe, infantry and Calvary joined the rebels. Government troops were half-hearted in their
round-up of rebels. Ferdinand was forced into promising a Constitution in July 1820.
Revolutionaries were received by the King who swore to defend the Constitution and a new
Government appointed with Pepe in charge.
Consequences?
The Austrian Prime Minister Metternich met with King. In March 1821 the Austrian army entered
Naples and reasserted absolute rule. Arrests, imprisonments and executions were common.
1820 SICILY
Causes?
Wanted independence from Naples
Events?
Riots in Palermo led to demands for a Constitutional Government. Offices were burnt down,
prisoners released, Governor sent home and revolutionaries took over city.
Consequences?
Put down by Austrians after they had dealt with Naples (above).
1821 – PIEDMONT
Causes?
King Victor Emmanuel was very reactionary and an Absolute Monarch.
Events?
Naples revolution was heard about in Piedmont and Carbonari and revolutionaries
joined together to form a revolutionary Government in the town of Alessandria. There
they pronounced an independent ‘Kingdom of Italy’ and declared war on Austria.
Army mutiny in Turin led to Victor Emanuel abdicating. Liberals turned to Charles Albert.
Charles Felix (in line to throne before Charles Albert. – denounced him and Charles
Albert fled).
Consequences?
Austria troops supported Charles Felix and defeated Turin Liberals. Rebels fled to exile.
1831 – PARMA and MODENA
Causes?
Excited by revs in France and others in Italy led to revolts breaking out.
Events?
Revolutionaries wanted a constitution.
In Modena the revolt was led by Enrico Misley (but he was arrested 2 days before the
uprising in Feb 1831.
Revolutionaries took over Modena and set up a Provisional Government. Students rioted
and demanded a constitution
Consequences?
Duke Francesco negotiated Austrian help and he returned and savagely dealt with riots.
THE EARLY REVOLUTIONS OF 1830-1
1830 – PAPAL STATES
Causes?
Organised by professional classes who resented oppressive rule by the church.
Events?
The Papal Government put up little resistance and a provisional Government
‘The Government of the Italian Provinces’ was formed in Bologna in February
1831.
Consequences?
Once the Austrians had regrouped they supported the Pope and Austria troops
defeated and severely suppressed rebels
WHAT CAN WE LEARN FROM THE FAILURES OF THE EARLY REVOLUTIONS?
OBSTACLES TO UNIFICATION
LEADERSHIP
Someone/state needed to lead a unification movement/plan. No one was willing to yet.
UNIFICATION
Unification/Nationalist ideas needed to be discussed and wanted. E.g. Sicily wanted
independence from Naples
COMMON GOALS
Ideas of Unification/getting rid of Austria etc. needed to be agreed. All states in 20’s/30’s
wanted different things.
INTERNATIONAL SUPPORT
Italy needed support of a strong country e.g. France if they were going to unite and get
rid of Austria.
AUSTRIA
Austria crushed all of the early Revolutions. When she was perceived as weak – states
took their chance at revolution. However; without foreign support Austria was too strong
to be fully ousted.
OVERCOMING OBSTACLES
3 NATIONALIST LEADERS
These discussed and talked about ‘Uniting Italy’, and ‘Who’ will lead this, so they were
beginning to think about overcoming L.U.C.I.A problems.
GIUSEPPE MAZZINI
He wanted all Italians to rise up and overthrow their Absolute Leaders. He used
propaganda in the call for violent insurrection. He wanted democracy, freedom
and patriotism and he eventually saw a United States of Europe, which was a
little ahead of his time. He was a Republican and wanted an elected leader. His
organisation ‘Young Italy’ was the way he educated followers like Garibaldi and
used the group to express his views. However, he was too intellectual for the
masses and his ideas did not have mass appeal.
VINCENZO GIOBERTI
Published ‘Of the Moral and Civil Primacy of the Italians’ 1843. He rejected revolution.
He wanted a Federation of states with the existing rulers uniting under the Pope.
CESARE BALBO
Published ‘Of the Aspirations of Italy’ in 1844. Also believed that a democratic, United
Italy was undesirable. He simply wanted to expel Austrians. He wanted Piedmont –
Sardinia’s King to take on leadership of new Italian federation.
2. Revolutions in Italy 1848-49:
LONG - TERM CAUSES OF 1848 REVOLUTIONS
FORCES OF
CONTINUITY
(IMPOSED AT
V
VIENNA)
FORCES OF
CHANGE
(IMPACT OF
NAPOLEON)
EVIDENCE
=
ABSOLUTE AND
REACTIONARY
MONARCHS IMPOSED
AT VIENNA
V
LIBERAL
AND NATIONAL
IDEAS
=
LANDOWNERS BACK
IN POWER AND
SUPPORTING
MONARCHS
V
RISING MIDDLE CLASS
(BETTER EDUCATED
AND WHO HAD POWER MERITOCRACY
=
MIDDLE CLASS REV GROUPS
ROLE OF POPE
AND CHURCH
(IN STATES AND
EDUCATION
V
CHALLENGES TO
TEMPORAL/SECULAR
ROLE OF CHURCH
=
MAZZINI’S IDEAS AND
YOUNG ITALY
PEACE (AFTER
SUCH A PROLONGED
WAR)
V
NATIONALISM
=
Revs of 20’s and 30’s and
MAZZINI’S CALL
FOR INSURRECTION
Revolutions of 1820 – 31,
e.g. Piedmont Libs reacted
against the Reactionary
Monarchy to impose a
constitution
Liberals, Nationals, ‘Young
Italy’, Carbonari etc…
SHORT – TERM CAUSES OF 1848 REVOLUTIONS
A LIBERAL POPE
Pius IX elected Pope in 1846. He was a liberal and granted amnesty in all
political prisoners. Reforms followed in admin, law, education and he
introduced the ‘Consulta’ to advise him. Council members were elected. His
reforms were copied in Piedmont and Tuscany. Perhaps he would lead
unification?
LIBERAL REFORMS
Copied from Papal States in Piedmont and Tuscany
ECONOMIC CRISIS
Disastrous harvests of 1846 and 1847 led to food shortages in rural and urban
areas. High prices and static wages = revolutionary activities amongst
masses.
OTHER REVOLUTIONARY OUTBREAKS IN EUROPE
Revolutions were breaking out all over Europe. E.g. in France, and Austria.
Metternich even was forced out. Austrian weakness gave the Italian
Revolutionaries the opportunity they had been waiting for. (Need to then
mention each individual states’ causes of Revolution in terms of: ousting
Austria; getting rid of church influence and Sicily’s call for independence.)
CAUSES, EVENTS AND CONSEQUENCES OF THE 1848
REVOLUTIONS.
THOSE WHO WANTED AUSTRIA OUT:
LOMBARDY
Causes
•Controlled by Austria. Trouble began in Milan with a Tobacco boycott. Tobacco
was a state monopoly (Austrian) and people believed it would affect Austrian
finances.
Events
•Austrian soldiers who smoked in public were attacked small scale fights turned
into riots and became a full scale revolution known as the ‘Five Days’
•(17-22 March) Austrian commander 81 year old General Radetsky withdrew from
the city (mainly because revolutions had broken out in Austria)
•Provisional Government was set up in Milan by revolutionaries and they asked for
support from Charles Albert (who had granted a constitution). He agreed to
declare war on Austria
Consequences
•Charles Albert (Piedmont) was defeated by the Austrians twice in Custoza and
Novara. Austrians then suppressed the revolution in Lombardy
CAUSES, EVENTS AND CONSEQUENCES OF THE 1848
REVOLUTIONS.
PIEDMONT
Causes
•Piedmont became involved with war after the revolutionaries in Milan
asked for Charles Albert’s (King of Piedmonts) help and he agreed.
Events
•Charles Albert first had success and his army defeated the Austrians at
the end of May 1848. The Pope’s army Commander independently set off
with troops and joined Albert’s Army. The Pope was forced to issue the
Papal Allocution stating that was with Austria was wrong.
Consequences
•By June 1848 reinforcements arrived in Austria and in July Albert’s army
was defeated by the Austrians at Custoza. An armistice was signed and
Piedmont withdrew from Lombardy. Albert re-started the war in March
1849. Within a month he was finally defeated at the Battle of Novara.
Albert abdicated.
CAUSES, EVENTS AND CONSEQUENCES OF THE 1848
REVOLUTIONS.
TUSCANY
Causes
News of Metternich’s fall and the revolution in Austria led to the Tuscan
Government sending an army to fight the Austrians.
Events
Workers in the cities began to complain about pay and conditions and
middle class radicals called for Republicanism.
January 1849 the Grand Duke left. A revolutionary Provisional Government
was set up and a dictator appointed.
Consequences
After Charles Albert was defeated in Novara – the Austrians swept
through and restored the Grand Duke.
CAUSES, EVENTS AND CONSEQUENCES OF THE 1848
REVOLUTIONS.
PARMA AND MODENA
Causes
•Revolts broke out once Piedmont began war with the Austrians.
Events
•Rulers fled when revolts broke out
Consequences
•Once Albert’s army was defeated, Austrians swept through and restored
the leaders
CAUSES, EVENTS AND CONSEQUENCES OF THE 1848
REVOLUTIONS.
VENETIA
Causes
•Austrian controlled. Small outbreaks of violence occurred copying other
states’ actions.
Events
•After a small scale revolt, the Austrians surrendered and in March 1848
the Independent Venetian Republic of St Mark was proclaimed.
Consequences
•It held out against a siege by the Austrian navy in the summer of 1849.
However, a cholera outbreak caused problems. The Venetians, driven by
hunger and disease surrendered to the Austrians in August 1849
CAUSES, EVENTS AND CONSEQUENCES OF THE 1848 REVOLUTIONS.
THOSE WHO WANTED INDEPENDENCE:
SICILY AND NAPLES
Causes
•Sicilians wanted to break from Naples.
•Ferdinand II King of Naples made reforms but then took them away and used
severe repression.
•Cholera outbreak (added to above) = desperate people.
Events
•January 1845 a notice went up in Palermo telling Sicilians how they could get weapons.
Government troops clashed with Sicilians. Peasants from outside city joined in. 2 days
later 5000 Neapolitan reinforcements arrived in City.
•Rebels wanted constitution (restoration of the one in 1812). By April a compromise was
rejected and revolutionaries had taken over most of the island.
•A provisional Government was set up via Middle Class Moderates. A civic guard
controlled the masses. A parliament was elected that declared Naples and Sicily
separate.
•Revolution then spread to the mainland of Naples. Demonstrators there demanded a
Constitution.
•The King was forced to agree to 2 Chamber Parliament with limited power. He agreed
to form a National Guard, abolish press censorship and sort out peasant’s grievances
over land.
Consequences
•Peasants were quickly suppressed. Sicilians were defeated and by the spring of 1849
forced to accept reunification with Naples.
•The King then abolished all reforms.
CAUSES, EVENTS AND CONSEQUENCES OF THE 1848
REVOLUTIONS.
THOSE WHO WANTED TO SEPARATE CHURCH AND STATE:
ROME
Causes
The Pope’s unpopular Chief Minister was murdered at the end of November 1848
Events
The Pope fled when rioting broke out and went to Naples.
The Government in Rome announced a series of reforms. It abolished the tax for
grinding corn, provided public building work for the unemployed and proposed a
‘Constituente’ a meeting of representatives from all over Italy in Rome. The
election of representatives were organised by the Council of States (chosen by the
Government of Rome) and met in February 1849. Garibaldi was amongst it
members. It proclaimed an end to the temporal power of the Pope and established
the Roman Republic. This was ruled by Mazzini who arrived in March as the Head
of a ‘triumvirate’ who ruled the city fairly and tolerantly.
Consequences
The Pope appealed to the French, Spanish and Naples. The French sent an army.
Despite a gallant defence of the city by Garibaldi, the city fell to the French in
June 1849. The Pope returned to Rome on the 12th April 1850.
WHY DID THE 1848 REVOLUTIONS FAIL?
LEADERSHIP
FAILURES OF THE POPE, ALBERT AND MAZZINI
1. POPE - Liberal but after Roman Revolution he fled to Naples and refused to lead unifications and issued the
Papal Allocution 2. CHARLES ALBERT - Called on by Lombardy and Venetia to lead. Tuscany sent an army
and were joined by the Pope’s army (against his wishes). He failed at Custoza and Novara 23rd March 1849
and resigned. 3. MAZZINI - Roman Republic set up and was liberal and his attempt at bringing a ‘constituente
together’. French crushed it June 1849 and restored the Pope
UNITING STATES - FAILURE TO UNITE
Piedmont led and united with Lombardy, Tuscany and Venetia but were crushed by the Austrians. Albert refused to
allow volunteers from other states into his army = weaker army than he could have had. Local revolutionaries
had no coordinated guidance.
Sicily actually wanted independence from Naples. The ‘Constituente’ in Rome attempted to unite representatives
from each state but failed after French crushed the Roman Republic.
COMMON GOALS - NO COMMON GOALS
REPUBLICANISM? CONSTITUTIONAL MONARCHY? FEDERATION?
Each provisional Government set up different types of Governments
Attempt by the Roman Republic and ‘Constituente’ to bring representatives from all over Italy but failed after the
French crushed Republic. All states wanted separate, things (except the majority wanted Austria out)
No popular support. Life didn’t change for the peasants under the provisional governments. Their only concern
was for food.
INTERNATIONAL SUPPORT
NO INTERNATIONAL SUPPORT
The French were actually involved in restoring the Pope in Rome. France could have been an ally, but was too
concerned about the Pope’s influence on the Catholic powers in Europe. Austrian army was too strong to be
defeated by Italy alone.
AUSTRIA
AUSTRIA’S WEAKNESS led to revolts in Lombardy, Venetia, Piedmont, Parma and Modena and Tuscany.
AUSTRIA’S STRENGTH led to the Crushing of Piedmont at Custoza and Novara and then swept through and
restored leaders of all of the above except the Pope
DEVELOPMENT OF PIEDMONT IN THE 1850S
POSITION OF PIEDMONT BY EARLY 1850’s
SIGNIFICANT EVENTS UP TO THE EARLY 1850’s
1720
1802-14
1815
1819
1820-21
1831
1848
1849
Dukes of Savoy (rulers of Piedmont) become rulers of Sardinia.
French rule
liberated constitution. No real opposition to French
Victor Emmanuel I – restored Monarch Absolutism returned.
Piedmont also controlled Genoa.
Charles Albert (2nd in line to throne) returned to Piedmont and saw
repression.
Albert led revolution in Piedmont. Genoa declared its independence.
Victor Emmanuel abdicated in 1820, Charles Felix succeeded him, but
died in 1831.
Charles Albert becomes King of Piedmont. Initially reactionary
later Liberal
‘The Statuto’ (Constitution) was created that would later become the
constitution of a United Italy in 1860’s. 23rd March Albert declared
war on Austria. Defeated at Custoza.
Defeated in Novara.
Albert abdicates and his son Victor Emmanuel II becomes King.
Overall: The Statuto remained and Piedmont had a free press, elected assembly,
Civil and legal liberties.
POSITION OF CAVOUR BY EARLY 1850’S
1811
1833
1835
1847
1848
1850
1851
1852
1856
1858
1859
1861
Born in Piedmont
Attended Royal Military Academy
Became an officer in the Army
Visited Britain and was impressed by Industrial Revolution
Returned to Piedmont to run family estate.
Wrote ‘Il Risorgimento’
Became an MP and was seen as non revolutionary and liberal.
Became Minister of Agriculture, Commerce and the Navy. Arranged
free-trade treaties.
Became Minister of finance – began building railways.
Formed a new Central Party. Became Prime Minister. Joined Crimean
War against Russia
Sat at Peace Conference on almost equal terms with Great Powers
Secretly met with Napoleon III at Plombieres.
Austria declared war on Piedmont on 29th April 1859.
Died
POSITION OF GARIBALDI BY EARLY 1850’s
1807
1831
1833
1848
1849
1859
Born in Nice
In the merchant navy he met Mazzini, Member of Young Italy.
Involved in Mazzini’s plot in Piedmont, forced to flee and was sentenced to
death in his absence.
Became a pirate in the New World
Joined a rebel army in Brazil
Fled with a fisherman’s wife
Sold spaghetti in Uruguay.
Defended Uruguay against Argentina and won
Returned to Italy for the revolutions. Offered his services to Charles Albert but
was refused.
Garibaldi went to newly created Roman Republic to help Mazzini resist French.
He did manage to push them back but 3rd July 1849 Roman Republic fell to
French.
He collected 5000 men and began to march over 800km across Adriatic Coast.
Short of food and water and pursued by enemies only 1,500 men made it (his
wife died).
Escaped to Genoa.
Went to North America.
Piedmont now ruled by Victor Emmanuel and Cavour. Garibaldi was invited to
return in preparation for war against Austria.
POSITION OF PIEDMONT 1852-59
EXTERNAL/FOREIGN AFFAIRS
Crimean War – After Cavour was persuaded to support the Allies in the Crimean War,
Piedmont and Cavour had a seat at the Peace Conference in 1856 as an equal partner.
Cavour formed a bond with Napoleon III France and Cavour met Napoleon at
Plombieres in July 1858 to gain French support against planned war with Austria. War
with Austria 1859
INTERNAL/POLITICAL
Piedmont had a constitution and was liberal which meant c. 30,000 political exiles fled
there. As a result Piedmont became the centre of the Nationalist Movement and the
radical press flourished. Cavour manipulated the ‘National Society’ under Pallavicino to
call for political unification of Italy led by Piedmont. Cavour wanted Austria out at this
point, he didn’t take unification seriously at first. Cavour engineered the ‘Connubio’ a
political marriage between Centre-Left and Centre-Right which strengthened Parliament
against the crown, allowed him to pass legislation and allowed him to become Prime
Minister in 1852. The Siccardi Laws of 1850 ended secular power of the Church which
further strengthened Cavour and Piedmonts power.
INTERNAL/ECONOMIC
Cavour became Minister of Commerce, Trade and the Navy in 1850 and later became
Minister of Finance in 1851-52, before becoming PM. Trade Treaties were set up with
Britain, France, Belgium and Austria. During the 50’s foreign trade trebled (increased by
300%. A railway network was created to cover 1/3 Italy (850km) . Farming and factories
were industrialised and a National Bank was established (The Bank of Turin).
UNIFICATION PROCESS OVERIEW
STAGE 1
Acquisition of Lombardy
France and Italy go to War with Austria 1859. The Battles of Magenta and Solferino were
particularly bloody. Napoleon calls for an armistice at Villa Franca but gives Lombardy
to Piedmont.
STAGE 2
Acquisition of Tuscany, Modena, Parma and Romagna
Central states voted for annexation to Piedmont. Cavour persuades French to accept
this by promising her Nice and Savoy.
STAGE 3
Acquisition of Sicily and Naples and Papal States
Garibaldi defeated Neapolitan army in June 1860 with his ‘thousand’. Naples
surrendered September 1860. He hands over conquests over to Piedmont and Victor
Emmanuel II.
March 1861
‘The Kingdom of Italy’ is proclaimed
STAGE 4
Acquisition of Venetia and Rome
Venetia added 1866 after Austro – Prussian war. Rome added 1870 as France was
fighting against Prussia in the Franco-Prussian War.
BUILD UP TO WAR: THE PACT OF PLOMBIERES:
THE ORSINI PLOT:
• On 14th January 1858 four Italians led by Count Felice Orsini attempted to
assassinate Napoleon. They believed it would lead the restoration of the Republic in
France and ultimately gain support for Italian Unification. They failed and were
arrested.
• At his trial Orsini appealed to Napoleon to support Italian unification. Napoleon
was so impressed with his arguments that he met with Cavour.
THE PACT OF PLOMBIERES:
• They met at Plombieres. In return for Cavour’s assurance that Italian Nationalists
would be suppressed in Piedmont, as long as he gained a wife for his cousin Jerome,
he would send French troops if a war was to commence between Austria and Italy,
as long as Austria was the aggressor.
• It was finally agreed that A Kingdom of Upper Italy (ruled by Piedmont) would be
created to include Piedmont, Lombardy, Venetia, Parma, Modena and the Papal
Legations. Central Italy would be controlled by Tuscany, Rome would remain in the
Pope’s hands, Naples would remain separate. In return for 200,000 French troops
Napoleon would gain Nice and Savoy and Victor Emmanuel’s daughter, the 15 year
old Marie Clothilde would marry the middle-aged Prince Jerome.
STAGE 1: ACQUISITION OF LOMBARDY
• The Pact of Plombieres set up the agreement between Cavour and Napoleon III.
Cavour now needed to provoke war with Austria. Victor Emmanuel delivered a
provocative speech on 12th December 1859 but it had little effect. Cavour mobilised
the Piedmontese Army in March 1859. The Austrians followed suit. The Austrians
demanded the Piedmontese army to demobilise within three days. It didn’t and
Austria declared war on Piedmont on 29th April. The French sent their army.
Piedmont ensured the National Society engineered revolutions in central and
northern Italy.
WAR WITH AUSTRIA 1859
• Two minor victories by the Piedmontese army at Palestro and by Garibaldi’s
‘Cacciatori delle Alpi’ at Como in May 1859 paved the way for the two main battles
of the war.
• The Battles of Magenta and Solferino: (4th and 24th June) Austria was defeated
at both (although only just). The Carnage was horrific (led to the Red Cross being
set up) and Austria didn’t look as if it would pull out of N Italy. So Napoleon
secretly made peace with Austria at Villafranca on 8th July 1859.
• Villafranca: this concluded that Austria would give Lombardy to France to pass to
Piedmont (but not give up Venetia). Piedmont was not to acquire the central states
and the Pope would lead an Italian confederation of states.
• Cavour resigned before the official end of war at the Treaty of Zurich Nov 1859.
STAGE 2 – ACQUISITION OF TUSCANY, MODENA,
PARMA AND ROMAGNA:
• Napoleon however declared that the Pope’s temporal role was in decline
and met with Cavour (back as PM on 21st Jan 1860).
• Cavour agreed to hand over Nice and Savoy to France as long as France
would accept annexation by Piedmont of the Central duchies. This was
agreed as long as the central duchies held plebiscites and voted in favour
of Piedmontese annexation.
• Cavour manipulated the National Society to cause unrest in the Central
Sates to initially give him a bargaining tool over Napoleon. He then used
them to rig the plebiscites which worked as all were in favour.
• Cavour gained easy expansion of Piedmont through the support of the
National Society and through clever diplomacy with Napoleon.
STAGE 3 – ACQUISITION OF SICILY, NAPLES AND THE
PAPAL STATES:
• Garibaldi initially gathered an army of ‘the thousand’ to meet to prevent the
surrender of Nice to France. However they heard that a revolt was breaking out in
Sicily. Many of his men were Sicilians and he was persuaded by Crispi and Pilo to sail
south. Garibaldi decide he would liberate Italy in the name of ‘Italy and Victor
Emmanuel’. He arrived in Sicily on 11th May 1860. He was faced with little opposition
and his army grew in size from new recruits. His army was well trained and he was
an outstanding leader, despite limited ammunition he defeated the Neapolitan army
at Calatafimi on 15th May and Sicily was acquired by the end of July.
• September 1860 (despite many attempts by Cavour to stop him) Garibaldi
conquered Naples and planned his next stage - the papal states. Cavour decided to
act. He used the National Society to begin a riot and he ordered the papal army to
disband. When they didn’t he sent in the Piedmontese army. (France didn’t mind as
long as they stayed away from Rome).
• On the 18th September the Papal army was defeated by Piedmont at the Battle of
Castelfidaro. Garibaldi had to defeat the surviving Neapolitan army on 26th
October 1860 at the Battle of Volturno.
• On the 26 October Victor Emmanuel and Garibaldi met at the head of the two
armies. Garibaldi handed over his acquisitions and returned to Caprera. The new
‘Kingdom of Italy’ was proclaimed with Victor Emmanuel II the King in 1861.
STAGE 4 – ACQUISITION OF VENETIA AND ROME:
• Cavour died in June 1861 from Malaria. He was succeeded by Baron Riscali and then
Rattazzi. Early 1862 Garibaldi set up the Society for the Emancipation of Italy. In June he
set sail for Sicily (on way to Rome) with support from Rattazzi. However, the French looked to
get involved and Rattazzi sent a military force to block Garibaldi. At Aspromonte Garibaldi’s
army surrendered to the Piedmontese but only after Garibaldi was shot badly in the leg.
Garibaldi was later pardoned but Rattazzi was sacked. His successors were all weak.
VENICE:
• Venice was gained through diplomacy and the Austro-Prussian War 1866. War.
Bismarck (Prussia) and Napoleon met at Biarritz in Oct 1865. Napoleon promised to
remain neutral in a war between Prussia and Austria. Italy agreed to fight for
Prussia in return for Venice. Napoleon double crossed Prussia and also made a
treaty with Austria saying she would stay neutral in a war between Austria and
Prussia if she would gain Venice!! As it happened Austria defeated Italy at the
Battle of Custozza. But as Prussia won (at Sadowa) she handed over Venice to
France, who in return handed it to Italy.
ROME:
• Sept 1864 Napoleon agreed to evacuate Rome as long as Italy switched capital
from Turin to Florence. Later it was again diplomacy and war that led to Piedmont
gaining Rome. Prussia provoked France into the Franco-Prussian War in 1870.
France troops left Rome to fight the Prussians. Piedmont seized the opportunity to
take Rome and it was pronounced the new Capital City in 1870.
HOW UNITED WAS ITALY AFTER 1861?
1. Rome and Venetia outside
Venetia was not successfully won back from Austria until the
Austro-Prussian War in 1866. Even so, it was only claimed
back through support of Napoleon III and Bismarck in Prussia
and only after a humiliating defeat of Italy by the Austrian navy.
Garibaldi made two unsuccessful attempts in 1862 and 1867 to
invade and take Rome. However, Rome didn’t become part of
Italy until the Franco-Prussian War in 1870 and again only after
Napoleon III’s army left the city. Rome was the natural capital
and failure to include it in 1860 had been a grave
disappointment for the liberals. 1870 saw the end of the Pope’s
temporal powers and Rome was finally declared the capital.
HOW UNITED WAS ITALY AFTER 1861?
2. Who leads Italy and what form of Government?
Cavour’s successors as PM were of poor quality in the 1860s. No-one had
charisma, leadership qualities or could be seen as equal terms to the heroes
of the Risorgimento. Only in power for short time. Farrini had a mental
breakdown had tried to knife the king and was removed after three months.
Ratazzi became involved in the failed attacks on Rome and was forced to
resign. However others believe they did good work and were successful and
important, e.g. philosopher Benedette Croce wrote in defence of them.
The Communist historian, Antonio Gramsci, said they were moderate
liberals who had managed to outwit democratic republicans and set up
government. 1861 – Italy was a Constitutional Monarchy – not the republic
Mazzini dreamt of, nor a federation under the Pope as Gioberti, Cavour and
Napoleon III had proposed. The Constitution was based on Charles Albert’s
Statuto of 1848. The sovereign body was the King in parliament and not the
people as Mazzini hoped.
It was not a true democracy – but an unsatisfactory parliamentary
democracy. Government was Piedmontese nobility and educated middle
classes’ minority who formed the elite and an all male parliament. Electors
were male, over 25 years, literate and tax paying (about 2% of population).
Most were from Northern Italy, therefore parliament was well-to-do
traditionally minded liberals and unrepresentative of masses.
HOW UNITED WAS ITALY AFTER 1861?
3. Various Armies
In the 1860s a Unified Italian army was formed out of armies of Piedmont,
Naples, Central Italian states and Garibaldi’s ‘Army of the South’. Army was
modernised and re-organised along Prussian lines. Navies of Piedmont and
Naples amalgamated into single force but was not modernised until 1876.
4. Pope – Pius IX
Lost Temporal Power but retained spiritual power – now outside of Italy. He
resided in the Vatican but called himself a ‘prisoner’. He declared all
Catholics who worked for new secular state would be excommunicated.
The Church had always been a unifying element, but now many liberal
minded Catholics who supported secular government but also wished to
keep the faith found themselves in a difficult position.
Over the next few decades Pope became even more hostile to Italian
states.
HOW UNITED WAS ITALY AFTER 1861?
5. North/South Divide
First the new Northern government tried to ignore problems of uniting with
South. When this didn’t work, it forced the Piedmontese style of government
in the South. Very unsuitable as in Naples and Sicily the problems were not
so much political, but social and economic. The majority of the population in
the South were illiterate, lived in poverty and squalor and at near starvation.
Landowners continued to enclose land which left less land available for
peasants = starvation. But government introduced higher taxation! The cost
of living rose and the quality of peasants’ life even lower. With added
problems of new legal systems and conscription – many left to hills of
Naples and Sicily to avoid military service and lived as bandits instead.
Many others joined the Mafia. Public opinion turned against landowners and
against Victor Emmanuel II and Piedmont. Peasants began migrating to
towns to find work and often found nothing = turn to crime.
In 1860s law and order in Sicily and Naples broke down. Bandits became
bolder and rural discontent fuelled a revolution which turned to civil war –
more people were killed than the total in the ‘Risorgimento’. The
Piedmontese army of 100,000 men took 4 years to suppress from 18611865
Throughout the 1860s the North and South remained as far apart as ever.
HOW UNITED WAS ITALY AFTER 1861?
6. Economic Integration – Customs and Laws
Legal codes of individual states – formed into a single penal
(criminal) code based on that of Piedmont (only Tuscany kept
its code).
In 1865 a single system of civil law similar to France’s code
Napoleon was adapted. It allowed civil marriage, though
divorce still illegal.
Foreign policy, foreign ministry and diplomatic service all
based on Piedmont.
The standard of living fell throughout Italy. The King wanted
to continue the war and therefore taxation was high and
peasants struggled.
EXAMINATION QUESTIONS
‘OBSTACLES’ TO UNIFICATION/NATIONALISM:
1. ‘How far do you agree that the greatest obstacle to the growth of Nationalism
in Italy between 1815-1870 was the influence of Austria?’
2. ‘How far do you agree that the limited appeal of Mazzini’s ideas were the main
reason for the slow progress of National unity in Italy 1815-48?
3. ‘How far do you agree that the greatest obstacle to the growth of Nationalism in
Italy between 1815-1870 was the influence of the Catholic Church?’
4. ‘How far do you agree that the greatest obstacle to the growth of Nationalism in
Italy between 1815-1870 was the lack of Foreign support?’
5. ‘How far do you agree that the greatest obstacle to the growth of Nationalism in
Italy between 1815-1870 was the divisions amongst the Nationalists
themselves?’
OTHER ‘EARLY’ QUESTIONS:
• ‘What caused the series of National and Liberal uprisings in Italy 1848?
• ‘How far was the failure of the 1848 Revolutions in Italy due to the intervention
of foreign powers?’
• ‘What did the revolutionary groups learn from their mistakes in the 1848
Revolutions that allowed them to unify Italy between 1859-70?’
UNIFICATION ESSAYS:
• ‘How significant was Cavour in determining the outcome of Italian Unification?’
• ‘How significant was Garibaldi in determining the outcome of Italian
Unification?’
• ‘How significant was the contribution of Victor Emmanuel in determining the
outcome of Italian Unification?’
• How significant was Piedmont’s Political and Economic Developments in
determining the outcome of Italian Unification?’
• How significant was the role of France in determining the outcome of Italian
Unification?’
• ‘How accurate is it to suggest that foreign intervention was the most important
factor influencing the unification of Italy?’
HOW UNITED WAS ITALY IN 1870?
• How far do you agree, that although Italy was politically united with Rome as
its capital by 1870, it was fundamentally not a unified state?’