Transcript Official Power & Countervailing Power


Power was distributed very unequally:
› State was absolutist
(did not acknowledge any power other than that of the King)
› Power of King and his representatives was
unlimited.
› Main goal for the colony was to increase the
power of France through commerce, war and
expansion in New France.
› Another main goal was to hinder the growth of
rival country Great Britain.

Chartered Companies Period: 1608-1663
› Initial administration was held by the major
fur trading companies.
› The policy of mercantilism caused New
France to become a trading colony, who
main goal was to supply and export raw
materials to France.

In 1663, King Louis XIV establishes Royal Government
in New France:
› French state would administer the colony through the
governor (responsible for war/diplomacy) and intendant
(responsible for economy/finances) who held extensive
powers.
› Laws could be created without the consultation of
anyone in the colony
› But, if the Governor or Intedant did not satisfy the
demands of the King, they would be sent back to France.
› Governor and Intendant ran the Sovereign Council (high
court)

The main means of control was intimidation:
› Wanted to keep the population scared so that they would not
disobey
› Military presence in the colony was important both to combat
enemies on the border and to keep the settlers under control.
› Criminals were subject to public physical punishment, including
execution for more severe crimes.
Relationships: The State and the Natives
 Alliances with the natives were essential to
the development of New France:
 Built gradually through the fur trade and the
exchange of goods
 Natives traded with fur merchants from Montreal
and fought for France.
› Natives were not subjects of the French Crown.
 Because New France needed these alliances for access to
furs and trade routes, they made compromises to keep them
loyal to the French.
Relationships: The State and the Natives
 Natives were also important for warfare:
› They had their own reasons for fighting the
British
 “Mourning Wars”, gain new goods, drive the British from
their lands.
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Native warfare style actually benefitted the
French:
• Surprise attacks and ambushes/fought mainly from the
cover of bushes.
• This helped the French because they were outnumbered
by the British.
Relationships: The State and the Natives
 Some of the compromises made to keep
the alliance with the natives were:
› Natives were not subject to French law
› French allowed them to keep their customs
› French participated in peace pipe ceremonies, gift exchanges
› Natives continued to use their language and the French would
have interpreters
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In return, natives agreed to:
› Fight for France
› Not to fight one another
 In 1701, the Great Peace of Montreal was signed by 40 native
nations agreeing to these terms. Before the Great Peace, natives had
been attacking Montreal. People refused to leave the walls of the
city. This demonstrates the necessity of the native/french alliance.
Relationships: The State and the Natives
 Continued contact between the French
and the Natives took a toll on native
populations:
› Disease spread rapidly wiping out entire native groups (ie:
the Hurons)
› Many natives died fighting for France
Relationships: The State and the Catholic Church

The State also had a strong relationship with
the Catholic Church:
› Worked together to promote each others interests
› Catholicism was the only religion permitted by law
› Government granted seigneuries to religious orders
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(Sulpicians got Montreal/ Jesuits got Laval)
Tithe (a proportion of harvest granted to parish priest)
Shops had to be closed on the Sabbath and religious
holidays.
Church taught the people to obey the authorities.
Missionaries attempted to convert the natives or at least
keep the peace between them and the French.

Relationships: The State and the Nobility
The role of the nobility was to serve the state and
the King:
› All the governors, intendants, and members of the sovereign
council were noblemen.
› Nobles also held other high ranking positions such as military
officers, naval commanders, judges, and engineers.
› These positions allowed them to exert sufficient power over the
colony.
› Nobles guilty of crimes could have their punishments reduced or
cancelled by the state.
Relationships: The State and the Peasants/Artisans

Peasants and Artisans represented 80% of
the population and had no political rights.
› Whatever the state wanted from them it took
› People paid regular taxes
› Had to work on roads and/or for the military for free
› State did not take their interests into consideration
› They were still considered a threat due to their large
numbers
› State’s main concern was to prevent rebellions
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Problems within the colony:
› Population was very low, so Intendant Jean
Talon (1665-1672) tried to promote settlement:
 Brought over Les Filles du Roi
 Gave free land to soldiers from the Carignan-Salières
Regiment
 Encouraged engages to work in New France
› Disputes between officials were common:
 Bishop Laval discouraged trade of alcohol with native
peoples
 Governor Frontenac supported it because he felt it was
important for the further growth and expansion of the
fur trade
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In 1760, British forces take control of
Montreal
› Britain and France were fighting in Europe (Seven
Year’s War) and thus fighting broke out within the
colonies.
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1760 -1763:
Governed by
the
occupying
army
The main reasons for the defeat were:
› The extremely vast territory and low population of
New France
› Britain’s stronger and larger military forces (army
and navy)
› France’s inability to send reinforcements (too
expensive)
› New France relied too much on the mother
country, while the 13 colonies were much more
independent.

In 1763, the Royal Proclamation, creates
a system similar to that of New France:
› A governor was appointed by the King, who would the
select members for an Executive council.
› British criminal and civil laws apply
› Encouraged trade to increase the wealth of the British
empire.
› Had to fight off the French, the natives and the Thirteen
Colonies
› Had to maintain internal order in a society composed of
former enemies (the French)

Quebec under the Royal Proclamation - 1763
The Royal Proclamation was intended to assimilate the
French and favour the British:
› Roman Catholics were not allowed to hold public office and
therefore could not participate in administration
› No new Roman Catholic Bishops could be appointed to serve
the colony
› Protestant churches and schools were encouraged
› Land was divided into townships for the occupation of British
and American colonists
Quebec under the Royal Proclamation - 1763

Though the system was set up in this way, not all of the new
policies were enforced (particularly by the first Governor
James Murray):
› French laws were permitted
› Did not create an elected assembly because it would
have favoured the English speaking merchants
› Selected people who were sympathetic to the French to
be on his council.
Murray understood that the French greatly outnumbered the English
(less than 1% of the population was English speaking and Protestant.

In 1774, the Quebec Act was passed:
 French civil law was reinstated
English criminal law was to remain in force
 Seigneurial rights and system restored
 The Tithe (church tax) could be collected again
 The Governor had an advisory council, 8 members
had to be French Canadian
 No elected assembly was required
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Most power was still in the hands of the governor
Quebec under the Quebec Act - 1774
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Colonists did have some new freedoms under British Rule:
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Newspapers were authorized
Petitions could be presented to the governor
Had the right to form associations
Criminals had the right to a lawyer and trial by jury
Of course, these freedoms could be suspended at any time
by the state.
› Means of control was still intimidation and public
punishments, as well as military presence was still common
Quebec under the Quebec Act - 1774

The British State had some allies:
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The Natives (became the military partners of the English
and would fight during the American War of Independence)
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The French Canadian (Canadien) Nobility (state was
forced to ensure the loyalty of these powerful people –
French civil law as well as the seigneurial system)
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The Catholic Church (Quebec Act grants toleration of
Catholicism, even though it was illegal in England/ in
return bishops and priests preach loyalty to the British
crown)
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Quebec under the Quebec Act - 1774
British colonists were upset with the political system
in Quebec:
› The Quebec Act was particularly frustrating for the English
because it tolerated Catholicism and allowed for French
civil laws.
› Because of their low numbers, they joined forces with the
Canadien population as well as the Loyalists, who were
also unsatisfied with the political system.
› They demanded the right to elect a legislative assembly
(so that they could exercise influence over state decisions)
Canadien bourgeoisie & Catholic church continued to oppose these changes.

In 1791 the Constitutional Act allowed for the creation
of the legislative assembly.
› This was done to appease the Loyalists and the Canadiens.
› It was also beneficial for the colony because the assembly
could impose taxes
› Britain divided Quebec into Upper and Lower Canada
 French civil law and religion was maintained in Lower Canada
 Canadiens could now serve in administration
System of Government after the Constitutional Act
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Governor had ultimate power over both Upper and Lower
Canada
The Governor appointed two Lieutenant Governors for Upper
and Lower Canada
The Governor appointed an Executive Council to advise him (in
each of the Canadas)
The Legislative Council could approve or reject laws passed by
the Assembly (in each of the Canadas)
The Legislative Assembly was elected by the people, but since
they were not paid most members were professionals
›
To be able to vote, you had to be at least 21 years old, had to own property
and earn over 20 shillings a year (most families had 1 vote, and women
could vote if they met these qualifications)

Though the new system allowed for more people
to have influence over the state’s decisions, there
were still problems with the new system in Lower
Canada:
› Positions in the assembly were not paid, so only the richest
members of society could run
› Poorest populations had no say
› Assembly was made up of mostly upper class, therefore
the decisions made were in the interests of these people
rather than the general population.
› Governor, Legislative Assembly, and Legislative Council all
had to approve a law for it to be passed.
The creation of an Assembly allows people to vote, but these decisions
can still be overturned – not Responsible Government.

The Parti-Canadien, later known as the Parti-Patriote,
pushes for Responsible Government:
› In 1834, they drafted the 92 Resolutions and sent them to
Britain (a list of their demands)
› Their demands were not met, so they used pressure tactics
to force a change in the government:
 They dominated the Assembly at this time so they did not
support laws proposed by the opposing British Party, and refused
to pass budgets and funding projects
 This prevented the government from being able to function
properly
 They eventually began mass rallies and demonstrations to put
further pressure on Britain
Under the leadership of Pierre Bedard, and later,
Louis-Joseph Papineau.

The Governments’ response was to go after the
Patriote leaders:
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In 1839, 12 Patriote leaders were publically hanged in Montreal
and 130 were deported, but the protests did not stop
Lord Durham was sent from Britain to propose a
solution to the problems
› He recommended Responsible Government, but Britain
did not follow through.
› Instead, they decided to unite Upper and Lower Canada

In 1840, the Act of Union, combined the two
Canadas in an attempt to suppress the rebellions:
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Created Canada East and Canada West
Made the Canadiens a minority again so that they
could not longer influence the government
English became the official language
Encouraged the assimilation of the French
The Legislative Assembly still had no influence over
executive decisions
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In 1846, Britain applies a free trade doctrine,
allowing for the mother country and the colonies to
contend directly with global economic
competition (Britain would no longer solely depend
on its colonies for raw materials)
In 1848, the colonies are granted Responsible
Government.
› The Government of United Canada became bilingual, and was
governed by representatives elected by the people.
› The Governor reserved the right to nullify laws, but did not usually
intervene the decisions of the Assembly.

As the government is now run mainly by the
bourgeoisie and entrepreneurs, the goals of the
government changed to suit their needs.
› Economic development within the colony became a
priority:
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Construction of canals to benefit merchants and traders
Construction of railways
New areas of colonization opened up
Creation of the Canadian dollar
Abolishment of the seigneurial system
Export markets for wood and wheat
Primary and Secondary education system to train workers
Catholic Church takes over social welfare and education
again
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The idea of Confederation of Canada comes
about in the 1860s.
Supporters included:
› The Catholic Church (believed that their privileges would
be better protected in a Catholic Province rather than
United Canada)
› Britain (colonies had become too expensive to maintain
and felt that they needed to govern themselves)

Opponents were:
› The Parti-Rouge (French feared that they would loose their
political power)
In 1867 the Dominion of Canada is created

Confederation occurs in 1867 with the British
North America Act:
› Division of power between the federal and provincial
governments becomes a major issue
› This results in Nationalist movements in Quebec
› Industrialization increases the power of financial and
industrial groups
› Aboriginals, unions and women fought for more rights
These interest groups forced the government to
become more involved

The roles of the Federal Government include:
› Jurisdiction over trade, defence, diplomacy,
currency and banking
› The right to collect various types of taxes
› Enact laws (in emergencies, they could be provincial laws)
› Disallow any provincial law that is contrary to
national interests

The roles of the Provincial Government include:
› Education
› Health
› Roads
› Natural resources
During the first 30 years, the rights of the Federal
Government were diminishing and infringements were
only made in crisis situations. More tax revenues were
given to the provinces:
The government was becoming decentralized and provinces
were gaining more sovereignty.

French Canadien Nationalism increased
after Confederation:
› In 1885, the hanging of Louis Riel ( a Metis
leader) was interpreted by many as an antiFrench and anti-Catholic gesture
› French felt that the Federal Government did not
protect the rights of Franco-Catholic minorities
› French Canadians wanted more autonomy

World War I had major consequences for
Federal-Provincial relations:
› War Measures Act in 1914 – Ottawa took ultimate control
over the provinces
› Provincial tax revenues were reduced
› Conscription Crisis in 1917 – Caused relations between
French and English Canadians to deteriorate (French felt
that it was not their war to fight)
 About 40,000 French Canadian conscripts refused to serve
These events further encouraged the emergence of French
Canadian Nationalism
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Changes in Power for the Natives:
› The Metis people led by Louis Riel protested against the
Federal government and demanded more rights.
› The rebellions prompted the Government to take action to
prevent this from happening in the other provinces.
› The Federal Government encouraged natives to give up
their lands, for the establishment of reserves.
› This allowed for further expansion and colonization in the
West
In 1876 the Canadian Government adopted the Indian Act which
considered native people to be minors and took away most of
their rights and influence

Changes in Power for Industrialists and workers:
› Economy and industrialization is essential for increasing a
country’s wealth
› Governments supported initiatives to improve business:
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Subsides
Laws
Infrastructure development
The National Policy in 1879: promoted industrialization
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But workers were fighting for better conditions and
wages:
› Previously workers had little or no means to improve their
working conditions
› After Confederation, the number of unions increased
drastically and workers demanded:
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Better wages
Shorter work week
Better safety conditions
Child labour laws
Protection against unemployment
Capitalists attempted to prevent the creation of unions and laid off
striking workers or those who were involved
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Increasing pressure was being put on employers
and the Government:
› Government did not want to support workers, because of
the important contributions of capitalist employers, but
could not ignore the workers because of their voting
powers.
› Various acts are introduced over the years to improve
conditions, but they were not always enforced
› Governments tended to repress strike movements by force
and still sided with the employers
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Changes for the power of women:
› In 1918 all women were granted the
right to vote in Federal elections
› This was a direct result of the
imposition of the Conscription Crisis
(PM, Robert Borden used women’s
suffrage to increase his popularity )
› In Quebec, political and religious
leaders opposed the feminist
movements
 Women in Quebec only gain the right
to vote in provincial election in 1940
Some Important Events
 The Great Depression and WWII:
› The depression and WWII required greater state intervention in
areas of health, welfare, and education
› Most provinces support this, but Quebec did not
› The second conscription crisis in 1944 made matters worse
 Prime Minister Mackenzie King promised not to enforce
Conscription and won because of this promise
 Eventually though, conscription was necessary
 Quebec members of Parliament resigned in protest and formed
their own party, Bloc Populaire
Some Important Events
 Duplessis (Union Nationale) and the “La Grande NOIRCEUR”:
› After the War, the state continued to intervene in the
provincial economy:
 Duplessis refused Federal funding for major projects
 He encouraged traditional society through the spread of
Catholicism and agriculture
› This caused Quebec society to remain backwards with
respect to other provinces and support for him diminished:
 Intellectuals, unions, feminists opposed Duplessis’ policies
 Duplessis died in 1959, and soon after Jean Lesage and the
Liberals took over
Some Important Events
 Jean Lesage and the Quiet Revolution:
› Transforms power relationships in the province
 More government involvement and funding
 Government becomes a major employer (public service
sector)
 New ministries and institutions (health care and
insurance systems, Ministere de la Culture, Ministere de
L’Education)
 Catholic Church looses most of its power
 Emergence of a powerful Francophone business class
 Unions exercise more influence over the government
Some Important Events
 Quebec Nationalism and the Linguistic Crisis:
› In the 1960s the average salary of a French Quebecer was
65% less than that of Anglophone Quebecers
› Immigrants were adopting the English language rather
than French, and sending their children to English Schools
› Language legislation tried to prevent Quebec from
becoming Anglicized
 Bill 22 (Robert Bourassa): French official language of Quebec
 Bill 101 (Rene Levesque): Immigrants had to attend French
schools, companies had to adopt French, French on all signs
Language laws were not met without controversy and caused many
Anglophones to leave Quebec in fear of separation
Some Important Events
 Quebec Nationalism and the Linguistic Crisis:
› Many nationalists began to think that the only way to
preserve the French culture was through sovereignty
 Three separatist groups joined forces in 1968 to form the Parti
Quebecois (came to power in 1976)
 FLQ and the October Crisis (powerful demonstrations for
sovereignty)
 Trudeau’s invocation of the War Measures Act further
infuriated Nationalist who felt it was unnecessary for the
Federal Government to intervene in such a way
Some Important Events
 Quebec Nationalism and the Linguistic Crisis:
› A Referendum was called in 1980 splitting Quebec’s
population
 No side won with 59.56% of the vote
 Yes side had 40.46% of the vote
› The close call fuelled more Nationalist debates, but there
would not be another referendum until 1995
 No side won again with only 50.6% of the vote