Transcript Crisis and Conflict in the Middle East

Crisis and Conflict in the
Middle East
Introduction
The European contest to control
the Arab world
The Arab-Israeli conflict originated in the
contest among European powers to
control the Arab territories of the Ottoman
empire.
Developing Arab nationalism in the late
19th century was contested by European
ambitions and a growing Jewish nationalist
movement in Europe.
The Ottoman Empire
Spread from Anatolia (now Turkey) – along
the eastern Mediterranean coast to
Morocco and down the Arabian Peninsula
to Mecca and Medina. By 1529 it reached
to Vienna.
By the 19th century it had become
weakened politically and economically.
European powers seized territory in
Europe and North Africa
Britain takes territory
Britain wanted to control the trade routes
to India.
By WW1 Britain controlled Gibraltar, Malta,
Cyprus, Egypt, Sudan, Aden & South
Africa.
Britain also established special relations
with local Arab rulers along the Persian
Gulf
France & Italy counter
France countered by seizing Algeria,
Tunisia & Morocco
Italy grabbed Libya.
The Ottoman Empire shrank to Anatolia
and the Arab provinces on the eastern
Mediterranean (Syria, Lebanon,
Palestine), the Red Sea coast (Hejaz,
Yemen), and Mesopotamia (Iraq).
Zionism
Jewish nationalism growing in Europe in the
1880s because of deep-seated anti-Semitism
Zionists felt that Jews needed their own
independent state.
Jewish immigration to Palestine increased from
1882 to 1914 until they were 10% of the
population
WZO (f.1897) assisted with purchase of land in
Palestine with the aim of creating an
independent state.
WW1
Ottoman empire fought on the side of
Germany and the Austro-Hungarian
Empire
Russia, France and England competed for
the potential spoils of war – carving up the
territory of the Ottoman empire.
To achieve this Britain made 3
contradictory agreements.
1. The Hussein-McMahon Correspondence
1915 –1916
Britain gained support of the ruler of the
Hejaz (who was also the religious leader
of Mecca and Medina)
Britain persuaded Sharif Hussein of Mecca
to launch an Arab revolt against the
Ottoman Empire and seek Arab
independence
Hussein and Arab nationalists thought that
this would avoid European rule
But Britain insisted in ruling Iraq, kept
protectorates in the Persian Gulf and Aden.
They hinted that France would have a role in
Lebanon.
Palestine was not mentioned as being excluded
from the Arab zone.
Sharif Hussein’s forces helped the British take
Palestine, Transjordan and Syria during 1917-18
Britain seized Iraq and Hussein’s son, Faisal
was made ruler of Syria.
2. The Sykes-Picot Agreement of
May 16, 1916
A secret agreement between France and
Britain.
France to control Lebanon, Syria and
Northern Iraq
Britain to dominate Transjordan and
southern Iraq.
Palestine – to be under international
control and not in Arab areas that would
receive independence.
The Arab area shrank to a small part of the
Arabian peninsula
This agreement was the basis for the post
war settlement that the League of Nations
ratified.
3. The Balfour Declaration of
November 2, 1917
Britain told the Zionist movement that it favoured
the establishment of a “national home for the
Jewish people” in Palestine
Britain hoped this would encourage American
and Russian Jews to press their governments to
fight harder in Europe.
Forming a Jewish national home under British
protection would circumvent the promises to the
French to internationalize Palestine and the
inclusion of Palestine in the Arab zone.
By offering to help the Zionists establish a
home in Palestine, Britain could place its
own troops there and control the strategic
territory near the Suez Canal and control
the holy places in Jerusalem.
The League of Nations
These deals were sanctioned by the
League of Nations.
Britain and France were given mandates
to rule areas on behalf of their residents
Syria & Lebanon went to France. Iraq,
Palestine, Transjordan to Britain.
The Balfour Declaration was written into
Britain’s mandate over Palestine.
European colonial rule prevailed in the
Middle East, at the expense of Arab
independence.
Jewish nationalism was given priority over
the rights of the Palestinians
Arabs felt betrayed and bitter at the
carving up and colonisation of their
territories.
1946-67
Israel and Palestine
Why was the state of Israel
created in 1948?
The Holocaust created great sympathy for
the Jews. Many western countries wanted
to create a homeland where they could
settle and feel safe.
Jews had been arriving in the area since
the 1890s. Jews believed that Palestine
was the ‘Promised Land’ of the Old
Testament.
From 1921 Palestine was controlled by
Britain. But in 1947 the British handed
Palestine over to the United Nations.
The United Nations recommended dividing
Palestine between Arabs and Jews. The
plan was published in November 1947.
Why did the Arabs reject the UN Plan?
They believed that Palestine was theirs by
right.
The Jews had been given 60 percent of
the land.
The Arabs seemed to have been allocated
the worst land.
As the British withdrew, the Palestinians
fought to gain control of every town.
Israeli terrorist gangs forced Arabs to
leave their homes and flee for their lives.
What was Israel like?
It was a secular state. All people living
within its borders would have the full rights
of citizenship.
Arabs would qualify as citizens and be
able to vote and stand for the Knesset,
This did not satisfy many Arabs. They did
not want to live in Israel. They wanted a
state of their own.
Israel was created on 14 May 1948. On 15
May 1948 the armies of Lebanon, Syria,
Iraq, Transjordan, Saudi Arabia and Egypt
attacked Israel.
Why did the Israelis win the war
of 1948-9?
The numbers of soldiers on both sides were
about equal. But the Israeli army was well
trained and used to fighting
The Arab armies were inexperienced and
divided.
Israel’s forces were also much better armed and
supplied than those of the Arabs.
There was great financial support for the new
state of Israel in the USA.
What effects did the war have?
The Israelis took over all of the areas that the
United Nations had set aside for Arabs.
About 800,000 Arabs left the new state of Israel.
This created the Palestinian refugee problem.
The refugee camps became the training grounds
for the freedom fighters or 'Fedayeen'. Attacks
began almost immediately upon targets in Israel.
More Jewish immigrants began to arrive and
new settlements were begun to house the new
immigrants. Many of these were in areas that
Israel had occupied during the war of 1948-9.
There were no peace treaties afterwards – only
ceasefires. Another attack could be expected at
any time.
The Israeli government tried to encourage more
immigration in an effort to increase the Israeli
population.
The Law of Return gave every Jew the
right to return to Israel. The population
rose rapidly as a result.
Arab states began to look towards the
Soviet Union for support.
The war led to increased support for Arab
nationalists such as Nasser in Egypt and
led to the downfall of King Farouq of Egypt
who was overthrown in a coup.
Why was there a Suez Crisis in
1956?
In Egypt in July 1952, there was a
revolution. The new leader of Egypt was
Colonel Gamal Abdul Nasser.
Nasser
Nasser wanted to force the British to leave
the bases that they still held in Egypt and
unite the Arab nations in one single
movement with Egypt at its head.
In 1954 British agreed to evacuate all
troops from Suez by April 1956, but
retained the right to reoccupy the base in
the event of an attack by any outside
power on an Arab League state or Turkey.
US Policy
At this time the USA was attempting to
build a barrier against Soviet expansion.
Baghdad Pact – Turkey, Iran, Pakistan,
Iraq and Britain – signed interlocking
agreements in 1954 -55 – and received
generous US economic and military aid.
Nasser refused to allow Egypt to join.
Syria and Jordan declined too. - claiming
imperialist aims of the west.
Nasser appealed to the USA for arms, but
was refused. Instead he agreed to buy
$200m Soviet arms from Czechoslovakia.
The US government offered $50,000,000
for the Aswan Dam project. But when
Nasser also asked for help from the Soviet
Union, the US government withdrew the
offer.
Nasser’s response
Annoyed by the US refusal to help fund
the $1 billion Aswan project, Nasser
retaliated by nationalising the Suez Canal
on 26 July 1956
He said he would use the revenues to fund
development projects the West refused to
help.
Suez was operated by a French company
How did the West and Israel
react?
The British government regarded Nasser's
actions as a threat to the Commonwealth,
which, it believed, depended upon the
Canal for trade links. Anthony Eden called
the nationalisation theft.
The French sent Israel 75 of their latest
fighter aircraft.
The Israelis wanted to take advantage of
the situation to launch an attack on Egypt.
On 29 October the Israeli army attacked
Egypt through Sinai without warning.
On 30 October the British and French
governments demanded that Egypt
withdraw its forces from the Suez Canal,
or they would intervene within twelve
hours.
On 1 November British and French planes
began to bomb the Egyptian airforce, destroying
most of Nasser’s planes on the ground.
On 5 November, when the British and French
dropped paratroops at Port Said.
On 6 November 200 British and French warships
bombarded Port Said and then landed a further
22,000 troops many by helicopter. Nasser
ordered the Canal to be blocked.
What effects did the Suez War
have?
There was overwhelming condemnation of
the invasion.
The General Assembly of the UN voted
64-5 for a cease-fire on the same day.
The Soviet Union threatened to send
troops to support Egypt
President Eisenhower told the British
government that it must withdraw.
On 7 November Britain and France
announced a cease-fire.
The Israelis withdrew six months later and
a UN peacekeeping force was put in place
for ten years.
Israel was guaranteed the use of the Gulf
of Aqaba. The port of Eilat, which had
been blockaded by the Egyptians before
the war, was now reopened.
This was a great victory for Nasser and
the Arab countries.
Damage to Britain
The Sunday Times of
London wrote
“[Eden was] the last
British Prime Minister to
believe that Britain was
a Great Power and the
first to confront a crisis
which proved beyond
doubt that she was not.”
January 16 1977
What effects did Suez have in the
Middle East?
Arab hostility to Israel increased still further.
The pro-western regime in Iraq was overthrown
in 1958 and Syria and Libya both began to look
to the Soviet Union for military aid.
In 1958 Syria and Egypt formed the United Arab
Republic, which lasted for three years.
In 1964 Nasser supported the setting up of the
Palestine Liberation Organisation
Why did Superpower involvement
increase in the Middle East?
To try to protect Israel and other countries from
Soviet influence, the Eisenhower Doctrine was
announced in 1957.
US aid was offered to any country in the Middle
East threatened by communism.
The Soviet Union began to send military
advisers to Egypt. By 1970 there were an
estimated 20,000 and military aid worth more
than $12,000,000,000 had been sent to the Arab
countries.
All the equipment and weapons lost by Syria and
Egypt in the wars of 1967 and 1973 were
apparently immediately replaced by the Soviet
Union.
From 1968 to 1973 the Soviet Union sent
$2,600,000,000 worth of aid to the Arab states of
Syria and Egypt.
Increased Soviet aid to the Arabs meant
increased American aid to Israel. In the late
1960s and early 1970s the USA sent
$2,000,000,000 to Israel.
What caused the Six Day War?
In May 1967 the Egyptian government
began to make claims that the Israelis
were building up forces for an attack.
President Nasser sent Egyptian forces into
Sharm el Sheikh close to the Israeli border
and ordered the UN forces (UNEF) to
leave Egypt.
Nasser was hoping that the tone of his speeches
and the increased strength of the Arab states,
which were now equipped with modern Soviet
weapons, would force Israel to back down.
The Israelis accused Nasser of threatening war.
Nasser believed that his aggressive stance
would gain him the approval and support of the
other Arab nations.
On 5 June 1967 the Israeli armed forces
attacked the Arab countries without
warning. The Egyptian air force was
virtually wiped out on the ground.
All of Sinai was occupied by the Israelis.
The Jordanian army was pushed back
across the Jordan River and the Israelis
occupied all of the West Bank.
In the north the Israelis seized the Golan
Heights from Syria and began to advance
on Damascus.
The UN called for a cease-fire, which was
accepted by Jordan on 7 June and then by
Egypt and Syria. By 10 June the fighting
had finished and the Arab states had been
defeated.
Why did the Israelis win so
easily?
It is almost certain that the Israelis planned
and then executed an unprovoked attack
to knock out their enemies before they
could do anything about it.
The Arab states were caught completely
off guard.
They had the best-equipped troops in the
Middle East. Not only their weapons, but
also their training, was vastly superior to
their opponents.
Israel could put 300,000 trained and
experienced soldiers into the field against
180,000.
What effects did the Six Day War
have?
Israel now had fixed boundaries that could
be defended much more easily.
Israel had a great deal more territory.
The Israeli government believed that it
could exchange territory for concessions,
which would guarantee the security of
Israel.
Israel now had fixed boundaries that could
be defended much more easily.
Israel had a great deal more territory.
The Israeli government believed that it
could exchange territory for concessions,
which would guarantee the security of
Israel.
Both governments forced the Palestinians
out for fear of reprisals from Israel. The
Palestine Liberation Organisation (PLO)
left to set up bases in Jordan.
Civil war broke out in Jordan as the
guerrillas fought the government
Other Arab groups became convinced that
the only way of defeating Israel was by
international terrorism.
1967-96
International terrorism
From the late 1960s terrorism was
directed against any country that
supported Israel.
The aim was to force countries to withdraw
support from Israel and so isolate it in the
Middle East
Most of the international terrorism was
carried out by extremist groups.
In 1968 the PFLP began to hijack aircraft
and killed more than fifty hostages.
In 1970 the PFLP hijacked four airliners
with 600 passengers and then destroyed
three on the ground at Dawson’s Field in
Jordan.
In 1972 Black September received a
$5,000,000 ransom for a German airliner
and then killed eleven Israeli athletes at
the Munich Olympic Games.
Arafat decided that the PLO proper would
only carry out raids against Israel.
In the same year an Israeli aeroplane was
hi-jacked and flown to Entebbe in Uganda.
The passengers were rescued, however,
by an operation carried out by Israeli
Special Forces.
What caused the war of Yom
Kippur?
In 1970 Nasser died and was succeeded
as President of Egypt by Anwar Sadat.
Sadat wanted to force Israel to return the
land that had been occupied in 1967 and
then reach an agreement with the Israeli
government.
Sadat wanted to inflict a military defeat
upon Israel to force it to the negotiating
table.
On 6 October 1973 Egypt and Syria
suddenly attacked Israel.
On this day most Jews spent their time
fasting or in prayer
The Egyptian forces crossed the Suex
Canal and advanced across Sinai, but
moved too quickly and allowed the Israelis
an opportunity to counter-attack.
On 15 October the Israelis once again
crossed the Suez Canal and encircled the
Egyptian Third Army.
In the north Syrian forces took the Golan
Heights, but were forced back by Israeli
reinforcements.
At this point the Soviet Union USA ordered
the Israelis to agree to a truce. When the
war ended on 24 October, little had
changed, but massive casualties and
damage had been caused.
What were the effects of the
war?
Both sides were convinced that peace
talks were necessary.
The Arab forces had fought well and
shown that Israel was not invincible.
The Israeli armed forces had been shaken
and their losses had been proportionally
much greater than their opponents.
The Arab states placed an oil embargo on the
USA and reduced shipments to the West. Petrol
rationing was put into effect in Britain.
When the crisis was over, the Arab states raised
the price of oil by 600 percent to try to force the
West to stop backing Israel.
They soon realised that controlling the price of
oil gave them a powerful weapon that could be
used to support the Palestinians.
Why was the Palestinian Liberation
Organisation important?
The PLO (Palestine Liberation
Organisation) was set up in 1964. It was
an umbrella organisation.
Some groups were violent, others, like AlFatah, were more moderate
Nevertheless, Al Fatah carried out major
terrorist raids. In 1967 it killed 97 Israeli
soldiers.
The PLO was based at first in Egypt, but
was forced to leave in 1968 after the Six
Day war and moved to Jordan.
In September 1970 war broke out between
the PLO and the Jordanian army.
The USA, however, promised aid and the
Jordanian army was able to defeat the
PLO, and force it to move to Lebanon and
Syria.
The defeat of the PLO led to the creation of a
new and much more violent organisation, Black
September.
In October 1974 the PLO was recognised by the
Arab governments as the only organisation that
could speak on behalf of the Palestinians.
It was then recognised by the United Nations
and Arafat addressed the UN General Assembly.
How did Arafat try to change the
PLO?
In 1985 Arafat, along with King Hussein of
Jordan, recognised the state of Israel and
in 1988 persuaded the PLO to accept the
right of the state of Israel to exist. The
PLO subsequently renounced violence.
This led to official contacts between the
USA and the PLO for the first time and
increased international support for the
PLO.
These changes made possible the
agreement between Yasser Arafat and
Yitzhak Rabin, the Israeli prime minister in
1993.
This resulted in the creation of Palestinian
self-rule in the Gaza Strip and parts of the
West Bank.
Why did fighting break out in
Lebanon?
Lebanon had a mixed population of
Christians and Muslims.
In 1975 civil war broke out between
Muslims and Christians.
Israel was drawn into the conflict in
Lebanon in 1978 to destroy PLO bases
A UN peacekeeping force was installed,
but failed to keep the two sides apart.
The Israelis invaded for a second time in
1982 and drove the PLO out of the
country.
A UN peacekeeping force was installed,
but failed to keep the two sides apart.
The Israelis invaded for a second time in
1982 and drove the PLO out of the
country.
What effects did the Israeli
actions have?
The massacres had a dramatic impact
upon international opinion, which had
hitherto tended to back Israel. Inside
Israel, an effective Peace Movement
emerged for the first time.
Some PLO guerrillas returned from Tunisia
and set up Hizbollah, a new and more
violent terrorist organisation.
The massacres had a dramatic impact
upon international opinion, which had
hitherto tended to back Israel. Inside
Israel, an effective Peace Movement
emerged for the first time.
Some PLO guerrillas returned from Tunisia
and set up Hizbollah, a new and more
violent terrorist organisation.
What caused the Intifada?
In the 1980s many Arab states paid less
attention to Israel.
The PLO was relatively inactive because
of its break up in 1983.
Palestinians in the Occupied Territories
began to take matters into their own
hands.
The Intifada began with protests, strikes
non-payment of taxes and refusal to use
identity documents.
The PLO moved in and the Intifada
became more serious.
The Israelis retaliated mostly with curfews
and tear gas, but some soldiers used their
firearms and by 1991 697 Palestinians had
been killed.
What were the results of the
Intifada?
Palestinians came to believe that their
destiny was in their own hands.
Some Israeli politicians saw the futility of
attempting to retain control of areas, which
were valueless and which were costing
Israeli lives.
International opinion also swung against
Israeli tactics in Gaza and the West Bank.
Yasser Arafat announced that the PLO
was renouncing violence.
How successful were attempts at
peace?
In 1977 Menachem Begin became Prime
Minister of Israel. He showed that he was
prepared to make agreements with the Arab
states and this led to the Camp David Talks with
Egypt in 1978.
Begin was a realist. Since 1967 Israel had
occupied Sinai, which was almost entirely desert
and of no real value. He could see no point in
holding on to it and so continuing to anger the
Egyptians.
Begin was also coming under increasing
pressure from the USA to reach some sort
of agreement with Israel’s neighbours.
The Camp David Agreement was signed
by President Sadat of Egypt and
Menachem Begin the Israeli Prime
Minister in 1978.
Israel promised to evacuate all land taken
from Egypt, except the Gaza Strip, within
three years. This was completed on time
in 1982.
In return Israel would have free use of the
Suez Canal and the Gulf of Aqaba.
What effects did the Camp David
Agreement have?
This was the first agreement between
Israel and any of her Arab neighbours. But
it did nothing for the Palestinians.
Sadat was seen as having betrayed the
Palestinian cause and in1981 he was
assassinated by Muslim extremists in his
own guards.
In 1988 Yasser Arafat renounced the use
of violence. The USA accepted Arafat’s
statements and made its first official
contacts with the PLO.
In 1991 the USA sponsored a peace
conference in Madrid. Many Palestinian
delegates were members of the PLO and
their attitude impressed the Americans.
What effects did Yitzhak Rabin
have?
In June 1992 the Labour Party was
elected to power in Israel. Yitzhak Rabin,
the new Prime Minister, lifted the official
ban on contact with the PLO in January
1993.
Rabin announced that Palestinian rights
would be restored in every respect. Rabin
was convinced that the only way to end
the violence was by negotiation.
All building on the West Bank was stopped
and the Israeli army was refused
permission to search the Palestinian
University campus.
800 of the 7,429 Palestinians being held
by the Israelis were released.
Secret talks took place in Oslo between
the Israeli government and the PLO in
January 1993.
The PLO agreed to recognise Israel,
renounce terrorism and accept
responsibility for all groups within the PLO.
Israel agreed to recognise the PLO as the
representative of the Palestinian people.
Israeli troops would be withdrawn from
Gaza and Jericho. The Palestinians would
govern these areas and take over
responsibility for law and order.
On 1 July Yasser Arafat returned to head
the new Palestinian Authority. A second
agreement was signed in 1995.
Palestinian attacks on Israelis continued
and fighting broke out between extremist
groups and Arafat’s Palestinian police
force.
The Israeli Prime Minister Yitzhak Rabin
was shot while attending a peace rally by
an Israeli extremist, who believed that
Rabin had given away too much in his
agreements with the Palestinians.