Transcript THE RENAISSANCE

THE RENAISSANCE
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ANALZYE THE INFLUENCE OF HUMANISM
ON THE VISUAL ARTS IN THE ITALIAN
RENAISSANCE
TO WHAT EXTENT DID WOMEN
PARTICIPATE IN THE RENAISSANCE
DISCUSS HOW RENAISSANCE IDEAS ARE
EXPRESSED IN THE ITALIAN ART OF THE
PEROID
CONTRAST WITH LATE MIDDLE
AGES
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Religion Dominates
Man should be well versed in one subject
Latin
Handwritten
Gothic
Divorce—No
Marriage – economic
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Humanism
Virtu
New Monarchs
Vernacular
Individual
Greek and Roman Classics
Bronze
Secular
Merchants
Printing Press
Marriages -- Romance
ITALIAN RENAISSANCE
• Florence (Quattrocentro)
– Massive Patronage (Medici Family)
– Center of Renaissance in 14th and 15th Centuries
– Medici’s – Banking
• Rome (Cinquecento or High Renaissance)
– Renaissance Popes – Secular
– Pope Alexander VI
– St. Peter’s Cathedral
• Painting
– Perspective – 3-D effects
– Chiaroscuro – Dark and light colors to create illusion of depth
• Sculpture
– Free standing to be seen in the round
– Glorified body (nude)
– Greek and Roman influence
• Architecture
– Used Greek temple, columns, Roman arches and domes
– Simplicity and balance
• Lorenzo Ghiberti
– Bronze doors at Florence Baptistry
• Donatello
– Bronze statue of David
– Free standing and in the nude
• Sandro Botticelli
– Birth of Venus
– Classical Mythology
• Leonardo da Vinci
– Renaissance Man
– Mona Lisa and Last Supper
• Raphael
– School of Athens
• Michelangelo
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Statue of David glorifies human body
Pieta is most perfect marble statue
Dome of St. Peter’s Cathedral
Sistine Chapel
• Mannerism
– Reaction against Renaissance ideals of balance,
symmetry, simplicity and realistic use of color
– Used unnatural colors while shapes were
elongated or exaggerated
• El Greco (Spain)
– Greatest of the Mannerists
– Toledo uses elongated figures and weird
pigments
ITALIAN HUMANISM
• Revival of antiquity (Greece and Rome)
• Virtu – Excelling in all of one’s pursuits
• Civic Humanism – Education should prepare
leaders to be active in civic affairs
• Petrarch
– Father of Humanism
– Sonnets to Laura
– One of the Big 3 (Dante and Boccacio)
• Dante
– Divine Comedy
– Vernacular
• Boccacio
– Decameron
– Social Behavior of Youth during Black Plague (Sex)
• Lorenzo Valla
– Expert on Latin Language
– On the False Donation of Constantine proved
land given to Church was based on fraud
– Latin Vulgate errors discovered
• Pico della Mirandola
– Oration on the Dignity of Man
– Humans have potential for greatness
– Free will
• Baldassare Castiglione
– The Book of the Courtier
– True Renaissance Man has physical and
intellectual ability living an active life
NORTHERN RENAISSANCE
• Christian Humanism
– Emphasis on early Church Writings
– How to improve society and reform the Church
– Led to criticisms of the Church
• Erasmus
– Master of the Greek Language
– In Praise of Folly wanted to reform the Church
– Satirized the immorality and hypocrisy of the Church
– Influenced Martin Luther
• Sir Thomas More
– Utopia
– Accumulation of property was root cause of society’s
ills
• William Shakespeare
• Miquel Cervantes
• Flemish Style of Art
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More detail
Oil Paints
Preoccupied with death
Ordinary People
• Jan Van Eyck
– Arnolfini and His Wife
• Peter Brueghel
– Focused on Ordinary People
– Peasant Dance, Peasant Wedding, etc.
• Hans Holbein
– Premier Portrait Painter
– Henry VIII
• Fugger Family
– Patron of Northern Renaissance
– Banking
RENAISSANCE WOMEN
• Wealthy Women
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Access to Education
Ornaments to their husbands
Women were to be pleasing to the man
Sexual Double standard
• Christine de Pisan
– Chronicled the accomplishments of great women in history
– Women’s survival guide
• Isabella d’Este
– Set example to NOT be an ornament
– Patron of the arts
– Founded school for young women
• Marriage
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Based on economic considerations
Dowries
Earlier marriages
Foundling Hospitals
• Divorce
– Very limited
• Important Rulers
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Isabella I of Spain
Mary Tudor of England
Elizabeth I of England
Catherine de Medicis of France
NEW MONARCHS
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Reduced the power of the Nobles
Hired Mercenary armies
Reduced the power of the clergy
Created efficient bureaucracies
Increased power of bourgeoisie
Towns gained power
FRANCE
• Louis XI the Spider King
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Used Diplomacy
Large Royal army
Destroyed Nobles
Increased Taxes
Encouraged economic growth (mercantilism)
• Francis I
– Concordat of Bologna
– Monarch appoints Bishops (Gallican Church)
– Taille – Tax on all property and land
ENGLAND
• War of the Roses
– Houses of York vs. Lancaster
– War between Nobles
– Henry VII removes Richard III and starts the
Tudor Dynasty
• Henry VII
– Reduced power of Nobles thru Star Chamber
– Used diplomacy
SPAIN
• Ferdinand of Aragon and Isabella of Castile
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Unify Spain
Catholic
Reconquista
Columbus
Spanish Inquisition
Holy Roman Empire
• The Hapsburg Empire
– Consisted of 300 autonomous German States
– Emperor did not have centralized control
– The Golden Bull
• Charles V
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Most powerful ruler in 16th century
Austrian Hapsburg and Spanish Empire
Sacked Rome ending Renaissance
Tried to stop the Protestant Reformation
AGE OF EXPLORATION
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DESCRIBE AND ANALYZE HOW
OVERSEAS EXPANSION BY EUROPEAN
STATES AFFECTED GLOBAL TRADE
AND INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS
FROM 1600 TO 1715
Rise in New Monarchs led to competition
Renaissance led more knowledge and adventure
ADVANCES IN LEARNING & TECHNOLOGY
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Cartography
Astronomy
Compass
Quadrant – latitude
Astrolabe – latitude
Caravel
Rudder
Weapons
PORTUGAL
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All water route to Asia
Prince Henry the Navigator
Vasco da Gama
Brazil
SPANISH EXPLORATION
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Gold, Glory and the Gospel
Columbus
Bartolomew de las Casas
Amerigo Vespucci
Treaty of Tordesillas
Ferdinand Magellan
Conquistadores
OLD IMPERIALISM
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Mercantilism
Encomienda System
Mestizos
Creoles
Jesuits
Asiento
COMMERCIAL REVOLUTION
• Increased in population leads to more consumers
• Price revolution
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Long slow upward trend in prices
Increase in food prices
Increase in volume of money
Increase in supply of goods
• Rise in capitalism led by bourgeoisie
• Banking
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Fuggers in Germany
Medicis in Italy
Antwerp (16th Century)
Amsterdam (17th Century)
• Hanseatic League
– German states that controlled trade
• Joint-Stock Companies
– Investors pooled resources for common purpose
– Virginia
• New Industries and Goods
– Textiles, Mining, Printing, Shipbuilding,
Weapons
– Sugar (most expensive), rice and tea
• Mercantilism
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Nations sought self-sufficiency
Export more than import
Bullionism – Acquire Gold
Trade’s goal was keep gold from going to
competing company
PRICE REVOLUTION
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The emergence of nation states led to taxation
Exploration created empires
Prices rose gradually in the 16th century
More population demanded more goods which
increased prices
• Influx of gold for the New World
• Inflation
• Bourgeoisie
LIFE IN 16th & 17th CENTURIES
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Countryside
Lords/Nobles at the top
 Peasants owned land
 Landless workers
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Towns
Bourgeoisie were the wealthiest
 Skilled craftsman belonged to guilds
 Low-skilled jobs for low wages
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THE FAMILY
• Nuclear
• Age of marriage higher (economics)
– Dowries
– Permission needed
• Children
– Average number of kids 6
– Post 1750 an increase in illegitimate births
• Women
– Marriage was an escaped from hard life of work
• Child Care
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Poor women breast fed
Wealthier women used wet nurses
Foundling Hospitals
Spare the rod and spoil the child
Girls were sent to the city
• Education
– Elementary education for boys and girls
– Religious instruction
– Prussia had compulsory education
• Life Expectancy
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Increase from 25-35
No plague
Sanitation
Vaccinations
Clothing
Better food
Potato
Meat, fish and alcohol
• Medical
– Smallpox
– Edward Jenner
WITCH HUNTS
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Belief in Magic
Church
Women
Scientific Revolution
Medicine
Trials
Reformation
PROTESTANT
REFORMATION
CAUSES
• Crisis in the Church
– Babylonian Captivity
– Great Schism
– Concilliar Movement
• Give Church Councils more power than Pope (Rejected)
• Corruption in the Church
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Simony
Pluralism
Absenteeism
Nepotism
Sale of Indulgences
– Moral decline
• Pope Alexander VI
• 20% of priests had concubines
– Clerical Ignorance
• John Wyclif
– Bible, Personal Communion & fewer sacraments
– Lollards
– John Hus
• Thomas a Kempis
– Brethren of the Common Life
– Live a simple life and make religion personal
• Erasmus
– In Praise of Folly
– Criticized corruption in the church and hypocrisy
• Renaissance Humanism
– Criticized Church and validity of the Vulgate
– Emphasized secularism and individualism, not
religion
MARTIN LUTHER
• Johann Tetzel
– Authorized to sale indulgences by Pope Leo X (St. Peter’s)
• 95 Theses
– Wittenberg
– Criticized the sale of indulgences
• Debate with Johann Ecks
– Denied infallibility of the pope and Church councils
• Theology of Reform
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Salvation by Faith alone
Bible is sole authority
Only 2 sacraments
Priesthood of all believers
Encouraged German princes to reform the church
Rejected celibacy (Marriage)
• Diet of Worms
– Charles V demands Luther recant
– “Here I stand”
• Confessions of Augsburg (Lutheranism)
• Spread
– Northern German states
– Denmark and Sweden
• Peasant’s War
– Twelve Articles demanded and end to serfdom and feudalism
– Inspired by Luther
– Luther supported German princes
• Schmalkalden League
– Lutheran Princes unite against Charles V
• Peace of Augsburg (1555)
– Cuius regio, eius religio
– German princes could choose Lutheranism or
Catholicism for their region
CALVINISM
• Institutes of the Christian Religion
– Calvin’s foundational work
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Predestination
The Elect
Geneva = Theocracy
Protestant Work Ethic
– Hard work, results in financial success because God likes you
• Presbyterians
– John Knox
– Scotland
• Huguenots
– French Calvinists
– Nobles
• Dutch Reformed Church
– Set the stage for revolt against Philip II
• Puritans
– England
– America
ENGLAND
• Henry VIII
– Defense of the Seven Sacraments
– Defender of the Faith
• Marriages
– Catherine of Aragon
– Anne Boleyn
• Church of England (Anglican Church)
– Pope refuses annulment (Charles V)
– Henry breaks away (Thomas Cranmer)
• Act of Supremacy (1534)
– King head of the Church
– Confiscated Church lands
– Monasteries closed down
• Act of Succession (1534)
– Oath of loyalty
– Thomas More executed
• Pilgrimage of Grace
– Opposition to Henry’s Reformation
• Statute of Six Articles (1539)
– Maintained most of Catholic doctrines
• Edward VI
– Adopted Calvinism
– Clergy could marry and removed iconic images
– Salvation by faith alone and 2 sacraments
• Mary Tudor
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Returned England to Catholicism
Marian Exiles = Protestants fleeing
Bloody Mary
Married to Philip II of Spain
• Elizabeth I
– Daughter of Anne Boleyn who developed Protestantism in
England
– Politique between Anglicans and Puritans
• Elizabethan Settlement
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Book of Common Prayer
Catholicism remained but in private
English services
Clergy not allowed to marry
Required church services
• Thirty-Nine Articles (1563)
– Defined the creed of the Anglican Church
• Mary Stuart
OTHERS
• Anabaptists
– No connection to any state
– Refused to take oaths, pay taxes or serve in the
military
– Rejected the Trinity
– Polygamy
– Burned books
– Munster = Anabaptists leaders executed
• Quakers
• Ulrich Zwingli
– 1st leader of the Swiss Reformation (Zurich)
– Eucharist was only symbolic
– Colloquy of Marburg
• Split with Luther over Eucharist
WOMEN
• Luther believed women should be home taking
care of the children
• Calvin believed in maintaining the moral order
• Suppressed common law marriages
• Marriage should emphasize love
• Bible reading increased women’s literacy
• Protestant Women lost opportunities in church
services, property ownership and legal
transactions
• Catholic women had church opportunities in
religious orders
• Angela Merci founded the Ursuline Order
– Provide education and religious training
– Combat heresy through education
• Teresa de Avila
– Believed in a direct relationship with God through
prayer and contemplation
CATHOLIC REFORMATION
CAUSES
• Pope Paul III wanted to improve Church
through discipline and existing doctrines
• Response to Protestant gains
• Response to critics in the Church that abuses
had to be reformed
COUNCIL OF TRENT
1545 - 1563
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Scripture, traditions and writings are equal
Salvation by faith and “good works”
All 7 sacraments valid (transubstantiation)
Monasteries, Celibacy and Purgatory
Index of Forbidden Books
Ended Abuses
– Sale of Indulgences
– Sale of Church offices
– Seminaries
NEW RELIGIOUS ORDERS
• Ignatius Loyola
– Organized Jesuits in military fashion
– Spiritual Exercises was guidebook for Jesuits
• Jesuits
– Reform the Church through education
– Spread the Gospel to pagans
– Fight Protestantism
• Inquisitions
– Persecution of Spanish Jews and Moors
– Accused Jews of killing Christ
• Catholic Reformation brought Southern Germany and
Easter Europe back to the faith
• Jesuit schools best in Europe
BAROQUE ART
• Demonstrates the glory and power of the Catholic
Church
• Emotionalism and Color
• Emphasized grandeur, emotion and unity surrounding a
certain theme
• Bernini
– Architecture and Sculpture
– The Ecstasy of St. Teresa
• Carvaggio
– Highly emotional
– Biblical scenes
• Peter Paul Reubens
– Christian subjects, Roman goddesses and nudes
RELIGIOUS WARS
1559 - 1648
PHILIP II
• Escorial
– Wanted to re-impose Catholicism
– Palace to symbolize his commitment to Catholicism
• Battle of Lepanto
– War against the Turks
– Defeated Turkish navy
– Ended Ottoman threat in Mediterranean
• The Dutch Revolt (Netherlands)
– William I led 17 provinces against Spanish Inquisition
– United Provinces of the Netherlands formed was blow to
Philip II
– Spanish Netherlands remained Catholic
– Amsterdam becomes commercial capital of the world
SPAIN VS. ENGLAND
• Queen Mary Tudor tried to re-impose Catholicism in
England
• Queen Elizabeth I reversed Mary’s decisions with the
Elizabethan Settlement
• Elizabeth help the Protestant Netherlands
• Spain wanted revenge for the Dutch Revolt and Mary
Stuart
• Spanish Armada
– Spanish navy destroyed
– England becomes the world’s naval power
– Spain declines
FRENCH CIVIL WARS
• Catherine de Medicis dominated
• Nobles became Huguenots
• France was devided
– Bourbons = Huguenots
– Guise = Ultra-Catholic
– Valois = Catholic ruling family
• St. Bartholomew Day Massacre (1572)
– Marriage between Valois princess and leader of
Huguenots (Henry of Navarre)
– Catherine de Medici orders the massacre of the
Calvinists
• War of the Three Henry’s
– Civil War among the 3 groups
• Henry IV (Henry Navarre)
– Ended the War of the Three Henry’s
– Politique
– “Paris is worth a Mass”
• Edict of Nantes
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Religious toleration granted to Huguenots
Private worship allowed
Allowed access to education and jobs
Huguenots kept 200 fortified towns creating a state
within a state
THIRTY YEARS WAR
1618 - 1648
• Defenestration of Prague
– Triggers war 1st phase of war in Bohemia
– Restrictions placed on Protestants
• Edict of Restitution
– Declaration by HRE that all church territory was to restored to Catholic
Church repealing the Peace of Augsburg
• Gustavus Adolphus
– Swedish King pushed Catholic forces back to Bohemia
– Ended Hapsburgs dream of reuniting Germany as Catholic
• Cardinal Richelieu
– In the 4th phase Richelieu allies France (C) with the Protestant forces to
defeat the Hapsburgs (C)
– This was a political decision, not religious
– Wanted to weaken the Hapsburg Empire
• Treaty of Westphalia
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Ended 30 Years War
Renewal of Peace of Augsburg adding Calvinism
Netherlands and Switzerland gains independence
300+ German states gain sovereignty
France and Brandenburg (Prussia) gain territory
The Hapsburgs are divided: Spain and Austria
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Germany physically devastated
Germany remains divided politically and religiously
Ended religious wars
France becomes dominant power
AGE OF ABSOLUTISM
PHILOSOPHY
• Jean Bodin
– Only Absolutism could provide order and force
• Thomas Hobbes
– Humans are poor, nasty and brutish
– Favored Enlightened despots
• Bishop Jacques Bossuet
– Advocated Divine Rights of Kings
– Believed King was placed on the throne by God
FRANCE
• France was divided into three Estates
– 1st Estate = Clergy
– 2nd Estate = Nobles
– 3rd Estate = Bourgeoisie, Urban workers & peasants
(95%)
• Hierarchy was based on rank and privilege
• Agrarian
• Cultural center
HENRY IV
• 1st King of the Bourbons
• Nobility
– Nobility of the Sword
– Nobility of the Robe = New nobles who purchased
title from the King
• Duke of Sully
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Mercantilism
Encouraged industry
Reduced debt
Improved transportation system (Roads and Canals)
LOUIS XIII
• Cardinal Richelieu
• Intendant System
– Weakens nobility
– Replaces local officials with civil servants (Intendants)
– Loyal to the King
• Subdues Huguenots
– Removes walls and armies
• Thirty Years War
LOUIS XIV
• “L’etat, c’est moi” = I am the State
• The Sun King
• Cardinal Mazarin
– Ruled France while Louis XIV was a child
– Angered the Fronde (Nobles)
• Fronde
– Revolted during Louis XIV childhood
– Louis determined to control Nobles from then on
• Corvee = Forced labor
• Versailles
– Most impressive palace (Baroque)
– Cost 60% of annual budget
– Controlled Noblity
• Edict of Fountainbleau
– Revoked Edict of Nantes
– Hugenots fled France
• Jean Baptiste Colbert
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Financial Minister (Mercantilism)
Bullionism
Transportation system improved
Trade increased
Industrial power
• War of Devolution
– Louis XIV invaded Spanish Netherlands
– Wanted throne for this wife
– Gets Alsace
• War of the League of Augsburg
– William of Orange (England) joins the League to
block France
– Starts Anglo-French rivalry
• War of Spanish Succession
– Charles II of Spain gives throne to grandson of
Louis XIV
– Grand Alliance opposes France
– Treaty of Utrecht
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Maintains balance of power
Ends Louis XIV expansionism
Britain gets Asiento and Gibraltar
Prussian King recognized
Spanish and Bourbon dynasties cannot be united
Destroys French economy
England grows in power
SPAIN
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Spain declines in 17th Century
Economy hurt by loss of Jews and Moors
Spanish trade cut 60% by Brits and Dutch
Spanish treasury is bankrupt
Taxes hurt the peasants
Inflation from the price revolution hurt industries
Military defeats
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Spanish Armada
Thirty Years War
Treaty of Pyrenees
War of Spanish Succession
EASTERN VS. WESTERN
• WESTERN ABSOLUTISM
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Divine Right of Kings
Absolute Monarchs not subordinate to Assemblies
Nobility brought under control
Government officials appointed by King
Control of Catholic Church
Secret police
Early Totalitarianism
• EASTERN ABSOLUTISM
– Based on a powerful nobility, weak middle class and
an oppressed peasantry composed of serfs
– Kings imposed taxes without consent of their
subjects
– Maintained standing armies
SERFDOM
• Serfdom strong in Eastern Europe
• Drop in population created labor shortages (Black
Death)
• Nobles demanded kings and princes to restrict
movement of peasants
• Heavy labor obligations on serfs and non-serfs such as
the robot that required 3-4 days a month of work for
the noble
• Hereditary serfdom established
• Eastern nobles power allowed them to keep their serfs
AUSTRIAN EMPIRE
• The ruler of Austria = Hapsburgs
• Austrian Hapsburgs controlled Naples, Milan, Austrian
Netherlands (Belgium), and Hungary
• Hungary was the largest part of the dominion whose
dominant group were the Magyars
• It was a multinational empire with Germans, Italians,
Czechs, Hungarians, Serbians, Romanians, etc included
• The siege of Vienna repelled the Turks in 1683 ending
the Ottoman influence in Central Europe
• Emperor Charles VI issued the Pragmatic Sanction
(1713) that the empire is never to be divided and passed
to his daughter Maria Theresa in 1740.
PRUSSIA
• Hohenzollerns were the ruling family
• Marriages allowed the Hohenzollerns to gain territory
• Frederick William the Great Elector (1640-88)
– Religious toleration granted to Jews and Catholics
– Created the most efficient army in Europe
– Junkers were the backbone of the Prussian Military officers
(Nobles)
• Frederick I
– 1st King of Prussia
– Encouraged higher education
– Fought two wars with Louis XIV to maintain balance of power
• Frederick William I
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Made Prussia the Sparta of the North
Doubled the size of the military
80% of revenue went to the military
Army was seen as a deterence
Established schools for peasant children
Civil service advancement based on merit
RUSSIA
• Ivan III (The Great)
– Ended Mongol domination of Muscovy
– Established Moscow as Third Rome for the Eastern
Orthodox Church
– The Czar (Tsar) claimed divine right absolute power
– Fought with the Boyars (nobles) for power
• Ivan IV (The Terrible)
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Increased the size of Russia
Cossacks were a problem
Executed Nobles who opposed him
Increased serfdom
– Period of famine, wars and power struggles followed
Ivan IV known as the Time of Troubles
• Cossacks
• Sweden and Poland
• Michael Romanov
– Selected by the Boyars to be the new Czar
– Expanded empire to the Pacific Ocean
– The Cossack revolts led to more restrictions on the
serfs
– Old Believers opposed the influx of Western
European religious groups into Russia
– Began Westernizing Russia
• Peter the Great (1682-1725)
– The revolt of the Strelski was defeated by Peter
– Expanded the army by requiring serfs to serve 25 year
enlistments
• 75% of budget
• Royal military academies
– The Great Northern War against Sweden gave Russia Latvia
and Estonia that will become is Window on the West in the
Baltic Sea
– He will import western technology and experts to Westernize
Russia
– Peter ruled by decree
– The Table of Ranks set education standards for civil servants
– Orthodox Church became a part of the government under
his control
– The Winter Palace in St. Petersburg was to model Versailles
OTTOMAN EMPIRE
• Could not maintain possessions in the Balkans
and Central Europe because of Russian and
Austrian advances
• Suleiman the Magnificent nearly conquered ½
of Eastern Europe
• The Janissary corps were Christian slaves
selected to loyal servants in the Ottoman
bureaucracy
• As Muslim religious leaders gained influence
they rejected European ideas speeding up its
decline as the Sick Man of Europe
POLAND
• Liberum veto required a unanimous vote in the
Polish parliament to make changes
• Russia and Prussia encouraged nobles to invoke
liberum veto to weaken Poland
• Poland carved up by Russia, Austria and Prussia
by 1800.
CONSTITUTIONALISM
STUART ENGLAND
• James I
– Believed in divine right of kings
• “No bishop, No King”
– Dissolved Parliament over taxes
– Guy Fawkes Plot
– King James Bible
• Charles I
– Divine Right of Kings
– Wanted to rule without Parliament
– Taxes and Quartering of troops
• Petition of Right (1628)
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Parliament wanted basic legal rights in return for taxes
Only Parliament can levy taxes
No imprisonment without due process of law
Habeas corpus
No quartering of troops
No martial law during peacetime
King agrees to get taxes
• Dissolves Parliament (1629)
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Parliament refuses to raise taxes
Rules without Parliament
Raises money using Medieval forms of taxation
Ship Money
• Archbishop Laud
– Drives Puritans out of Church of England
• The Short Parliament (1640)
– Scottish revolt over English Prayer Book
– Charles needed taxes but is disbanded over not
acceptance of Petition of Right
• The Long Parliament (1640-1648)
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Scottish victory
Parliament cannot be dissolved
Archbishop Laud executed
Star Chamber abolished
Common law over Royal law
OLIVER CROMWELL
• Charles tries to arrest Puritan leaders in Parliament starting the
English Civil War
• Cavaliers
– Supporters of the King (Anglican Church)
– Old Nobility
– Irish Catholics
• Roundheads
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Puritans and Presbyterians
London
Businessmen
Scotland
• Oliver Cromwell
– Commander of Roundheads New Model Army
– Defeated Charles I at Nasby
– Stops Scottish invasion
• Pride’s Purge
– New Model Army removes non-Puritans from Parliament
– Rump Parliament
• Charles I beheaded
• New Sects Emerge
– Levellers = Social and Political Reforms
– Diggers = Rejected Parliament’s authority and private
ownership of land
– Quakers = Inner light
• Rejected Church authority
• Pacifists
• Allowed women to preach
• The Interregnum = No King
– The Commonwealth established a Republic
– Military Dictatorship in reality
• The Protectorate
–
–
–
–
–
Lord Protector Oliver Cromwell
Dissolves Rump Parliament
England divided in 12 military districts
Denies religious freedom to Anglicans and Catholics
Jews encouraged to return
• Military Accomplishments
– Violently puts down Irish revolt
– 2/3 of Catholic owned land given to Protestants
– Conquers Scotland
• Puritan Regulations
–
–
–
–
–
Enforcement of Public morality
No theatres, dancing, or sports
Strict observance of the Sabbath
Press censored
Led to the restoration of Charles II
RESTORATION
• Charles II
– Agreed the King’s power was not absolute
– Religious toleration granted
• Tories and Whigs
– Tories = Nobles, Gentry, Anglicans, pro-Monarchy
– Whigs = Middle-class, Anglicans, pro-Parliament
• The Clarendon Code (1661)
– Restriction on Catholics and Puritans
– The Test Act (1673)
• Excluded from voting, teaching, preaching, government those
unwilling to accept the sacraments of the Church of England
• Catholicism
– Charles II granted religious toleration to Catholics
• Deal with Louis XIV for $
– Popish Plot = Titus Oates
– Dissolved Parliament over succession crisis
• Law denying succession to James II who was Catholic
• Habeas Corpus Act (1679)
–
–
–
–
Prisoners be in court
Just cause for imprisonment
Speedy trials
No Double jeopardy
• Scotland
– Charles II names himself head of the Church of Scotland
– Wanted to impose Anglican Church
– Killing Time in Scotland
• James II (1655-58)
– Wanted to return England to Catholicism
– Granted Religious freedom to all
– Starts the Glorious Revolution
GLORIOUS REVOLUTION
1688
• Parliament wanted a Constitutional Monarchy
• Declaration of Indulgence
– Grants freedom of worship to Catholics
– Catholic heir is born
• James II abdicates throne
• William and Mary
– Parliament declares them joint monarchs
– Agrees to the Bill of Rights
• The Bill of Rights
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
King cannot be Roman Catholic
Laws made with consent of Parliament
Parliament has freedom of speech
Taxation only with Parliament approval
Due process of law
Right to bear arms
Right of petition
No dissolving of Parliament by monarch
• John Locke
– Defends Glorious Revolution
– People create a government to protect their natural rights
– Life, Liberty and Property
• Act of Settlement (1701)
– If no successor then crown goes to the House of Hanover
– German princes
• The Cabinet System
– The leading ministers selected by the majority party
of the House of Commons make common policy
– They conduct the business of the country under the
Prime Minister
• Robert Walpole
– 1st Prime Minister
– Cabinet was responsible to House of Commons and
not the King
NETHERLANDS
• Government controlled by bourgeoisie
• Confederation of 7 provinces
• Each province was self-governing and
represented in the Estates General
• Each province elected a stadholder (governor)
• In times of crisis they elected one stadholder to
be the military leader (House of Orange)
RELIGION, ECONOMICS & POLITICS
• Calvinism was dominant religion
– Dutch Reformed
– Arminian
•
•
•
•
•
•
Catholics and Jews enjoyed religious toleration
Cosmopolitan society
Amsterdam (Banking and Trade)
Relied on Commerce
Dutch East India Company
Wars with England, France and the Spanish
Succession caused them to decline
SCIENTIFIC REVOLUTION

Medieval views were based on Aristotle and Ptolemy



Geocentric
Church views, traditions and practices governed society
Causes of Revolution



Free inquiry by philosophers
Scientific figures taught at universities
Renaissance stimulated science in rediscovering ancient
mathematics
COPERNICUS
•
•
•
•
•
On the Revolutions of Heavenly Spheres
Heliocentric View
Challenged Ptolemy and the book of Genesis
Theory condemned by Catholics, Luther and Calvin
Tycho Brahe
– Observatory collected data
– Wanted to disprove Copernicus theory
• Johannes Kepler
– Three Laws of Planetary Motion
– Orbits are elliptical
– Proved Copernican Theory
GALILEO
•
•
•
•
•
Developed the Laws of Motion
Used Empiricism (Controlled Experiments
Validated Copernicus Theory with telescope
Law of inertia
Forced to recant by Pope Urban VII
SCIENTIFIC METHOD
• Francis Bacon Inductive Method (Empiricism)
– Observation, Hypothesis, Experiment and organize data
– Find the truth at the end
• Rene Descartes Deductive Method
– Discourse on Method
– Cogito Ergo Sum
– Start with clear facts and subdivide each problem into as
many parts as possible
– Cartesian Dualism divided Mind and Matter
• Modern Scientific Method
– Inductive Method + Deductive Method
SIR ISAAC NEWTON
• Incorporated the astronomy of Copernicus and
Kepler with the physics of Galileo to explain the
order and design of the universe
–
–
–
–
Principia
Natural Laws of Motion – Gravitation
Natural laws are unchangeable and predictable
Deism
EFFECTS
• Astronomy
• Mathematics
• Deism
– God is a Clock Maker
– He set the universe into motion and watches
– Prayer not needed
• Anatomy
– William Harvey – Blood flow
– Anton van Leeuwenhoek – Bacteria
• Scientific Community
– Governments encouraged Scientific discoveries
– Prestige and new technology
– Royal Society of England
• Navigation
• Led directly to the Enlightenment
ENLIGHTENMENT
IMPACT ON SOCIETY
•
•
•
•
•
•
Emergence of a secular world view
Enlightened Despotism
American and French Revolutions
Education reforms
Growth of Laissez Faire capitalism
Classical Liberalism
–
–
–
–
–
Individual liberties
Equality before the law
Natural Rights
General Will
Freedom of Speech, Religion and Press
JOHN LOCKE
• Two Treatises of Civil Government
• State of Nature – Humans are good but lack
protections
• Natural Rights – Life, Liberty and Property
• Education is the key to human development
• Tabula Rasa
PHILOSOPHES
• Believed in progress through discovering the natural laws governing nature
and human existence
• Voltaire
–
–
–
–
Challenged traditional Catholic theology
Crush the infamous thing
Advocated Enlightened Despotism
Defend to the death your right to freedom of speech
• Baron de Montesquieu
– Separation of powers into three branches
– Checks and balances
• Jean-Jacques Rousseau
–
–
–
–
–
Social Contract
General Will
All men are born free but everywhere are in chains
Man was a noble savage
Emile believed in progressive education through learning by doing
• Denis Diderot
– Editor of Encyclopedia
– Compilation of political and social critiques of the various
Enlightenment philosophes
– Emphasized science and reason
– Critical of religion, injustice and tyranny
• Marquis Beccaria
–
–
–
–
On Crimes and Punishments
Humanize criminal laws
Equality before the law
Opposed torture
ADAM SMITH
• Francois Quesnay was leader of the French physiocrats
who opposed mercantilism and favored laissez faire
• Adam Smith
–
–
–
–
Wealth of Nations
Expanded Laissez Faire
Too much government control hurt production
Believed economy governed by natural laws of supply and
demand
– Government should provide schools, roads and military to
protect trade
WOMEN
• Salons
• Emile – Women are to be obedient wife and
mother
• Voltaire – Women are capable of all that men do
• Women patronized philosophes (Diderot)
• Mary Wollstonecraft promoted political and
educational equality for women to end women’s
subjugation to men (slaves)
IMMANUEL KANT
• While reason can neither prove nor disprove the
existence of God, faith and intuition can lead
one to understand the spiritual truths, existence
of God, immortality and heaven and hell.
• “What is the Enlightenment”
ENLIGHTENED
ABSOLUTISM
CHARACTERISTICS
• Belief that Absolute Rulers should promote the
good of the people
• Religious toleration
• Legal codes
• Increased access to education
• Reduction or elimination of torture and the
death penalty
FREDERICK THE GREAT
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
First Servant of the State
Reforms increased power of the state
Religious freedom to Catholics and Jews
Created a clear unified national code of law
Freed serfs on royal lands
Abolished capital punishment
Junkers – backbone of Prussia
– Nobles
– Serfdom maintained
– Marriages not recognized between nobles and commoners
CATHERINE THE GREAT
•
•
•
•
•
•
Boyars given complete control of serfs
Imported western culture into Russia
Printing Press introduced
Restricted torture
Limited religious toleration – Old Believers
Only nobles benefited
MARIA THERESA
• Pragmatic Sanction
• Limited the power of the nobles and Church
–
–
–
–
Partially freed the serfs
Reduced tortures
Suppressed the Jesuits
Taxed the church
• Economics
– Abolished guilds
– Abolished internal tariffs
– Improved transportation
JOSEPH II
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Abolished serfdom
Freedom of religion given to Protestants and Jews
Reformed judicial system
Abolished torture and death penalty
Established hospitals
Expanded state schools
Made parks available to public
Made German the official language
EUROPE IN THE 17th & 18th
CENTURIES
AGRICULTURAL REVOLUTION
•
•
•
•
•
80% of Western Europe were farmers and higher in the East
Open Field System
England and Netherlands
Increase in food production led to population explosion
New methods of cultivation
–
–
–
–
Cornelius Vermuyden – Drainage
Charles Townsend – Crop rotation
Jethro Tull – Seed Drill
Robert Bakewell – Selective Breeding
• Columbian Exchange
– Potatoes and Corn
– Sugar
• Enclosure Movement
–
–
–
–
–
–
1st Enclosure (16th Century) for Sheep
2nd Enclosure (18th Century) ended Open Field System
Commericalization of Agriculture
Increased farm size
Corn Laws benefited landowners
Peasants forced off land
• Impact of Agricultural Revolution
–
–
–
–
Population Explosion
Enclosure movement
Cottage Industry
Lower food prices
ATLANTIC ECONOMY
• Spain, Portugal, Netherlands, Great Britain and
France
• Mercantilism
• Bullionism
• Navigation Acts
• Triangular Trade
• The Dutch
• The Slave Trade
• The Bubbles
• Colonial Wars
– Britain vs. France
– Treaty of Utrecht
• Ended War of Spanish Succession
• Asiento given to Britain
– Seven Years War
•
•
•
•
•
Started over who would control North America
Treaty of Paris ended war
France lost Canada
Spain given Louisiana
Britain received India
– The American Revolution
• France
• Britain lost American colonies
POPULATION GROWTH
•
•
•
•
Potato
Better diet = better immune system
Improved sanitation system
Medicine advances (Edward Jenner)
THE FAMILY
EDUCATION AND HEALTH
THE FRENCH
REVOLUTION
ANCIEN REGIME
•
•
•
•
Louis XV restored the Parlement
First Estate
Second Estate
Third Estate
–
–
–
–
Taille
Corvee
Bourgeoisie
Lettre de cachet
• Arrest warrant without charges or trial
LONG-TERM CAUSES
• American ideals of liberty
• Enlightenment ideas led to criticism of
government
– Montesquieu, Locke, Rousseau
• Laissez faire
– Adam Smith
• French debt
• American Revolution
SHORT TERM CAUSES
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
France was bankrupt because of the debt
Inefficient tax system
Inflation (65%)
Jacques Necker tried to raise taxes on Nobility
Assembly of Notables
Famine and drought
Cahiers de doleances
– Complaints
NATIONAL ASSEMBLY
•
•
•
•
•
•
Estates General (May 1789)
Abbe Sieyes = What is the Third Estate
Tennis Court Oath
The Great Fear
August 4th = Nobility abolished
Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen
–
–
–
–
–
Men are free and equal
Natural Rights are to be protected
General Will
Freedom of Speech and Religion
Separation of Powers
• March to Versailles
• Civil Constitution of the Clergy (1790)
–
–
–
–
Secularized religion
Monasteries abolished
Church property used to pay debts
Clergy to be elected and forbidden to accept
authority of the Pope
• Refactory Clergy = Refused to accept it
– Divides France
• Metric System
• Le Chapelier law
– Outlawed strikes and unions
• Assignats = $ backed by Church property
• Flight to Varennes
– Louis XVI and family tried to escape
– Wanted to create a counter-revolutionary army
WOMEN
• Women Improvements
– Right to divorce
– Inherit property
– Child support
• Equality?
– Could not vote or hold office
– No belief in gender equality
• Olympe de Gouges
– Declaration of the Rights of Woman
– Wanted the same rights as men had
• Mary Wollstonecraft
– Vindication of the Rights of Woman
– Women’s Suffrage
• Women’s March to Versailles
– Jean Paul Marat
– Bread shortages
– Forced King, Queen and son to return to Paris
REVOLUTION AND EUROPE
• Edmund Burke
– Defended inherited privileges of monarchy and nobles
– Predicted anarchy and dictatorship
– Denounced the enlightenment political philosophy as abstract
• Thomas Paine
– Defended Enlightenment and French Revolution
– Saw triumph of liberty over despotism
– European Monarchs were now worried
• Declaration of Pillnitz
– Influenced by the emigres
– Prussia and Austria promised to restore the French monarchy
– Legislative Assembly declared war on Austria
• War of the First Coalition
• Brunswick Manifesto
– Threat to destroy Paris if royal family is harmed
• Lazare Carnot = Levee en masse
– Nationalism (Liberty, Equality and Fraternity)
• Napoleon
– Battle of the Pyramids
LEGISLATIVE ASSEMBLY
• Replaces National Assembly 1791-92
• Jacobins dominate
– Girondins
• Paris Commune
– Revolutionary municipal government
• September Massacres
NATIONAL CONVENTION
• Jacobins
– The Mountain (Radical)
– The Girondins
• Sans-culottes
• Louis XVI executed
• The Mountain and sans-culottes oust the
Girondins
• Marat stabbed
REIGN OF TERROR
• Committee of Public Safety
– Internal and external challenges
• Maximilien Robespierre
• Law of the Maximum
– Planned economy
– Lowered prices
• Law of Suspects
– Alleged enemies of revolution were tried
• Marie Antoinette
• Guillotine
– 40K executed
– 300K imprisoned
• No one was safe
• Republic of Virtue
– Cult of the Supreme Being
• Deistic Religion
• Robespierre
– Temple of Reason
– New calendar
• Thermidorian Reaction
– Opposition to Robespierre
– Ended the Reign of Terror
THE DIRECTORY
•
•
•
•
5 member executive to govern France
Bourgeoisie in control
Reduced power of sans-culottes
Conspiracy of Equals
– Gracchus Babeuf
– Wanted a dictatorial democracy with equality and no
property rights
• Napoleon returns
– Coup d’Etat
NAPOLEON
BONAPARTE
1799 - 1815
ENLIGHTENED NAPOLEON
• Consulate Period = First Consul
• Napoleonic Code
–
–
–
–
Equality before the law
Freedom of religion
Property rights
Abolishment of serfdom
• Careers
• Concordat of 1801
–
–
–
–
French keeps the lands taken
France appoints clergy
Catholic worship allowed in public
Toleration given to Protestants and Jews
• Bank of France
• Economic Reforms
–
–
–
–
Lower food prices
Increased employment
Tax system better
Le Chapelier continued
• Educational Reforms
– Preparation for government service & professional
occupations
• Police state repressed liberty, subverted Republicanism
and restored Absolutism under Napoleon
NAPOLEONIC WARS
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Crowned himself emperor
The Grand Empire
Battle of Trafalgar
Battle of Austerlitz
Confederation of the Rhine
The Continental System
The Peninsular War
The Russian Campaign
Frankfurt Proposals
Quadruple Alliance
Charter of 1814
Hundred Days
Battle of Waterloo
CONGRESS OF VIENNA
• Met to redraw the territorial lines and restore the social and
political order of the ancien regime (Conservatives)
• Prince Metternich
• Czar Alexander I
– Poland
– Holy Alliance
• Legitimacy
– Restore the monarchs
• Compensation
–
–
–
–
–
England = Naval bases
Austria = Italian provinces
Russia = Poland
Prussia = Rhineland
Sweden = Norway
• Balance of Power
–
–
–
–
–
No one power could cause a general war
Encircle France
Belgium and Netherlands united
Switzerland = neutrality
Austria in control of German Confederation (Bund)
• The Concert of Europe (1815-1848)
– Keep the status quo
• Congress System (1815-1822)
– Same as above
INDUSTRIAL
REVOLUTION
ROOTS
• Machines replaced humans and animal power
• The Price Revolution stimulated production
• Capitalism = Surplus of $ by middle class
invested
• Scientific Revolution
• Cottage Industry = Putting Out System
ENGLAND
• Land and Geography
– Good supply of coal and iron
– Waterways provided power
• Agricultural Revolution
– Enclosure movement created a supply of workers
– Revolutions in agriculture created more food for more
workers
• Avoided continental wars
• Bank of England funded industry
• Colonial Empire
– Raw materials
– Market for British products
• Stable government with a strong middle class
• Textiles
– Cotton
– Mechanized
– Women workers
•
•
•
•
Coal and Steam Engines
Iron created heavy industries
British dominated world markets
British technology and engineers were best in
the world
INVENTIONS
•
•
•
•
Flying Shuttle = John Kay
Spinning Jenny = James Hargreaves
Water Frame = Richard Arkwright
Steam Engine = James Watt
TRANSPORATION
REVOLUTION
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Steam Power
Raw materials delivered to factories
Robert Fulton’s Steamboat
George Stephenson “Rocket”
1st important RR in the heart of industrial England
Reduced cost of shipping
Increased size of market = more demand
Increased the demand for urban workers
RR used to travel to work
1815 INDUSTRIALIZED EUROPE
• Napoleonic Wars delayed industrialization
• Studied Britain’s mistakes
• Borrowed British technology, engineers and $
–
–
–
–
Illegal until 1843
Belgium, Holland, France and US just after 1815
Germany, Austria and Italy by 1850
Eastern Europe and Russia after 1885
• Credit Mobilier helped build RR
• Zollverein
– German tarriff on non-German imports
– Free trade zone among member German states
• Bourgeoisie
– Factory owners
– Golden Age
• Protestants and Jews
– Bankers
URBANIZATION
• Birth of factory towns
– Manchester
– 3 large cities to 31 in 35 years
• Cities switched from cultural centers to industrial
centers
• Concentration of the population made conditions
worse
• Families working on the farm were an economic unit
but industrialization/urbanization changed that
• Work was taken away from the home
• Man was the breadwinner
• Women’s role was now tied to domestic duties
• Single women worked for low wages and faced
exploitation
• Irish workers came to Britain for better jobs and
to escape the Irish Potato Famine
–
–
–
–
Irish Catholic peasants rented land
Lived in poverty
1840s famine caused widespread suffering
Immigration to Britain and the US
WORKING CONDITIONS
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
14 hours a day, few holidays
Brutal and unsafe conditions
Low wages especially for women and children
Real wages increased 50%
Skilled workers made 2X that of unskilled
Work was impersonal
Child Labor
– Abandoned children
– 12 hour days and appalling conditions
– Families worked as a unit
• Saddler Commission
– Investigated working conditions
• Factory Act of 1833
– Limited workday for children 9-13 to 8 hours a day
– Limited hours of ages 14-18 to 12 hours a day
– Elementary education for children under age of 9
INDUSTRIAL WORKER
• Proletariat = Factory Workers
• Poorhouses provided disgusting work designed to
persuade workers to get out of the Poorhouses
• Luddites
– Irate workers smashed machines
– Feared machines were taking their jobs
• Friedrich Engels (The Condition of the Working Class)
– Colleague of Karl Marx
– Charged the English Middle Class with mass murder, robbery
and other crimes at the expense of the proletariat
UNION MOVMENT
• Leaders began organizing workers to resist exploitation
• Combination Acts (1799)
– Prohibited Unions
– Fear from the French Revolution =
• Robert Owen
– Cared about his workers
– New Harmony = Utopian Socialist community
• Chartists
– All men have the right to vote
• Unions wanted the 10-hour day and cheaper grain
prices (Anti-Corn laws)
• Bread and Butter issues =
CONSERVATISM,
NATIONALISM,
LIBERALISM &
SOCIALISM
CONCERT OF EUROPE
• Keep the status quo (Conservatives)
• Dominated by Prince Metternich
CONSERVATISM
• A reaction to liberalism and the violence of the
French Revolution
• Edmund Burke
• Worried about Nationalism threatening the
empires (Austrian)
CARLSBAD DECREES
• Multi-ethnic composition of the Austrian
Hapsburg Empire inspired liberalism and
nationalism ideas
• Universities, professors and student groups were
more liberal and nationalistic
• Prince Metternich cracked down on liberalism in
universities
• Unification literature was censored
PETERLOO MASSACRE
• Corn Laws of 1815 halted importation of
cheaper foreign grain
– Benefited wealthy English landowners
– Hurt the majority of English population
• Pro-Liberal crowd listening to anti-Corn law
speeches were attacked by British police
– 11 killed
• Press was censored and mass meetings
prohibited
NATIONALISM
• Turn cultural unity into self-government
• Common language, history and traditions bring unity
and common loyalities
• Supported by Liberals
• Origins: French Revolution and Napoleon
• Johann G. Herder
–
–
–
–
Volksgeist
Every culture is unique
No one culture is superior
Every nation should contain all members of the same
nationality
• Johann G. Fichte
– Father of German nationalism
– German superiority over other peoples
– Criticized Jews
REVOLUTIONARY
MOVEMENTS
• Spain (1820)
• Naples (1820)
– Carbonari
– Austrian troops crush rebellion
• Greek Revolution (1821-29)
– Eastern Question = Balkans
– England, France and Russia join Greeks
• Greeks were Christians
• Ottomans were Muslim
– Defeated Turks
– Greek independence recognized
LIBERALISM
• Humans have certain “natural rights” and government
should protect these rights
• Rights are to be guaranteed by a written Constitution =
• Republican form of government
– Representative
• Adam Smith (Wealth of Nations)
– Bible of capitalism
– Economic individualism
• Laissez faire
– Opposed government intervention
– Invisible hand = Supply and Demand
• David Ricardo = Iron Law of Wages
– Plentiful workers keep wages low
– Hurts the working class
– Fewer worker kids will reduce workers and improve
wages
• Utilitarianism
– Jeremy Bentham
– Greatest happiness for the greatest number
• John Stuart Mill
– Absolute freedom of opinion to be protected from
censorship and tyranny of the majority (Voltaire)
– Argued for Women’s Rights
• Thomas Malthus = POPULATION
• Inspired revolutions in 19th century
• Influenced reform movements in Britain
LIBERAL REFORM IN
ENGLAND
•
•
•
•
•
•
Britain abandoned the Congress System
Reformed the prisons = Auburn system
Metropolitan Police Force
Test Act Repealed
Catholic Emancipation Act (1829)
Reform Bill of 1832
– People demanded a more responsive government because of
the cholera epidemic
– Eliminated under populated rural districts (rotten boroughs)
– Representation increased in manufacturing districts
• Factory Act 1833
• Poor Law 1834 (Poorhouses)
• Chartists
–
–
–
–
–
Secret balloting
No property qualifications for parliament
Salaries for members of parliament
Annual elections
End to the rotten boroughs
• Corn Laws Repealed (1846)
• Victorian Age
FRANCE
• Charter of 1814
– Constitutional Monarchy established
– Louis XVIII
• White Terror
– Former revolutionaries murdered by royalists mobs
• Spanish revolution crushed
– French troops called in by Concert of Europe to
restore the monarch
• July Revolution (1830)
– Charles X July Ordinances were to impose an
Absolute Monarchy repealing the Constitution of
1814
– Radicals in Paris revolt = Charles X abdicates
– Louis Phillippe named the new king
– The new Bourgeoisie King let the middle class
control the government
– Started a new wave of revolutions in Europe
ITALY
• Northern Italy was controlled by the Austrians
inspiring liberal discontent
• Guiseppe Mazzini secret society Young Italy
called for unification
• The Carbonari wanted force o achieve national
unification
• Austrian troops crushed the disorganized
rebellion
• Italian Risorgimento continued Mazzini’s dream
GERMAN STATES
• Carlsbad decrees restricted freedom
• University students and professors inspired by
the French demanded constitutions
• Metternich crushed these revolts also
BELGIUM
• The United Provinces of the Netherlands
(Dutch Protestant) were united with Belgium
(Catholic)
• Belgium resisted being ruled by the Dutch
• They each had a different language, religion and
economic life
• They were merged to control France
• Students and professors demanded an
independent Belgium
• Netherlands and Belgium separated
RUSSIA
• Decembrist Uprising (1825)
– Junior military officers did not want Nicholas to be
the next Czar
– These junior military officers revolt was put down by
Nicholas
• Nicholas I
–
–
–
–
Police state
Censorship
No representative assemblies
Education carefully monitored
• Slavophiles
– Russian culture was superior to Western
• Westernizers
– Expand Russian culture through Industrialization
and a Constitutional government
SOCIALISM
• Wanted to reorganize society to establish
cooperation and create a sense of community
• Count Henri Saint-Simon
– Industrialization with Science will create a great
world
– Remove the parasites
• Lawyers, Aristocrats, the Court and the Clergy
– The doers can provide the proper organized society
• Scientists, Engineers and Industrialists
– Public Work projects
• Louis Blanc
• Pierre Proudhon
– What is Property
– Believed property was stolen from the worker
– The worker is the source of all wealth
UTOPIAN
• Charles Fourier
– Planned Socialist Economy
– Total emancipation of women
• Robert Owen
KARL MARX
• Marxism developed by Marx and Friedrich Engels
• The Communist Manifesto
– Bible of communism
– Replace Utopian dreams with brutal blueprint for the proletariat
• Dialectical Materialism
– All human history determined by economic factors
– Class struggle between the rich and poor
• Theory of the Surplus Value
– Worker receives just a small portion of the true value of his work
– It is stolen from him by the capitalist
• Socialism is inevitable
• Violent Revolution needed to overthrow the elite bourgeoisie
• Working Men of ALL COUNTRIES UNITE
• Creation of a classless society
• Women are doubly oppressed
– Women are paid low wages and exploited
– Women are considered 2nd class citizens
1848
• Revolutions influenced by Nationalism, Liberalism and
Romanticism
• Only Britain and Russia avoided revolutions
• End to serfdom in Austria and Germany
• Stimulated the unification impulse in Prussia and
Sardinia-Piedmont (Italy)
• FRANCE
• February Revolution
– Working class and liberals wanted electoral reform
– King abdicates
– Louis Blanc wants National Workshops to provide work for
the unemployed
– 10 hour day established
– Abolished death penalty
– Blanc removed leads to July Revolution
• June Days Revolution
– Government closes National Workshops
– Barricades (Les Miserables
– Revolt crushed by General Cavaignac
• Election of Louis Napoleon
•
•
•
•
•
•
• ITALY
Nationalist and Liberals wanted end to foreign
domination (Austrians)
Giuseppe Mazzini established Republic
protected by Garibaldi
Revolt crushed
Rural people did not support the revolutions
Revolutionaries not united
Fear of radicals among the moderates
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
• AUSTRIA
Ethnic minorities sought nationalistic goals
Only 25% of the population was German
French revolution sparked revolution
Louis Kossuth was the Hungarian/Magyar leaders
demanded independence
Metternich fled as the empire collapsed
Austrians and Slavic joined together to defeat the
Magyars
At the Prague Conference Austroslavism was an
attempt to unite the Slavic people as one
Austrians army put it down
• GERMAN STATES
• Inspired by the French
• Frankfurt Parliament
– Liberal Romantics wanted a constitution for all in
the German Bund
– Unification of Germany was the goal
– Prussia and Austria defeated Denmark getting
Schleswig and Holstein
– Selected Prussia King to rule
• Prussian King Frederick IV
– Divine Right
– Not accept crown from the gutter
• Unification movement collapsed because it was
not supported by Austria or Prussia
• Humiliation of Olmutz
– Austria demanded Prussia’s obedience to Bund that
Austria controlled
– Prussia drop unification plan, payback is coming
ROMANTICISM
BASICS
• Emotion over Reason
• Glorification of nature emphasizing its beauty
and danger
• Rejected the Enlightenment beliefs
• Emphasized feelings leading a fight against
slavery, poverty and industrial evils
• Drew upon ideals of the Middle Ages
– Honor, Faith and Glory
• Rousseau = Noble savage
• Kant = God
• Johann Herder
– Rebelled against Enlightenment
– Believed German language was key to unity
– Volksgeist
• George Wm. Hegel
–
–
–
–
Dialectic
Thesis is challenged by opposing view (Anti-Thesis)
Result is a blending of the ideas
Continues throughout history
• Johann Fichte
– Germans were superior
– Anti-Semitic
POETRY
• Johann Goethe
– Faust
– Sells his soul to the devil to experience ….
• Sir Walter Scott
– Historical poems and novels
– Ivanhoe and Knights
LITERATURE
• Goethe
– Romantic hero is misunderstood and rejected by society
– Rejected by the girl he loves
– suicide
• Victor Hugo
– Fantastic characters and strange settings
– Hunchback of Notre Dame
– Les Miserables
• Grimm’s Fairy Tales
– Collection of German folk stories
– German nationalism and romanticism are tied together
ART
• Eugene Delacroix
– Liberty Leading the People
• JMW Turner
– The power of nature and man’s attempt to survive
its force
MUSIC
•
•
•
•
•
Beethoven
Schubert
Chopin (Polish)
Verdi
Richard Wagner
– Music-Drama
– German nationalist
• Peter Tchaikovsky
– The Nutcracker and Swan Lake
– 1812 Overture
2nd INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION
• ROSE
–
–
–
–
•
•
•
•
R
O
S
E
Bessemer Process = Steel
Science and Technology become linked together
1890s Germany most powerful industrial nation
Workers were attracted to the cities
URBANIZATION
•
•
•
•
•
•
1891 = 50% of the Europe’s population
Decline in mortality rates
Better nutrition, medical knowledge and housing
Number of children dropped
Edwin Chadwick = Sanitation
Georges von Haussmann redeveloped Paris
– Wider boulevards
– Middle class housing in the suburbs
– Parks and open spaces
• Electric streetcar
– Suburbs
– Subways
• Jews in eastern Europe fled to the West to
escape persecution
• Increase in the standard of living
• Experts with specialized knowledge needed to
be professionals and managers
• Petite Bourgeoisie = Lower middle class
• Women worked as secretaries, hello girls and
nurses
SOCIAL STRUCTURE
• 15-20% of Western Europe were Middle Class
– 2% in Eastern Europe
• The petite bourgeoisie were the lower middle class that
included shopkeepers, civil servants, teachers, craftsmen
• Middle Class were liberals who wanted protection of
property in a constitution
• Middle Class emphasized respectability is based on
financial success
• The middle class saw the family as the foundation of
social order and that education, religion and
Nationalism are extremely important
• Working class totaled about 80% or more of the
population
– Many were peasants or hired hands
• The labor aristocracy were the skilled workers
• The unskilled workers or domestic servants were
at the bottom of society
• Children comprised about 14% of the workers
FAMILY
• Romantic love #1 reason for marriage by 1850
• Improved standard of living made it possible to marry
at a younger age
• Middle class females were monitored closed (chastity)
not so much for the boys
• The high rate of illegitimacy declined after 1850
• After 1850 the work of most wives was distinct and
separate from their husbands work
– Husbands were primary wage earners
– Wives = Cult of Domesticity
– Wives disliked 2nd class status
• Parents became more emotionally involved with their
children’s lives as mortality rates drop
• Mothers breast fed their children
• Fewer children abandoned to foundling
hospitals
• Middle Class decreased the # of children
• Parents of Middle class children wanted to
improve the economic and social condition of
their children
• Working class children went to work at
adolescences = less emotional ties to family
INTELLECTUAL
MOVEMENTS
Belle Epoque
•
•
•
•
Life at the end of the century (fin de siecle)
People enjoyed higher wages and lower food prices
Increased leisure time with increased money to spend
Sports
–
–
–
–
–
Soccer
Rugby
Bicycle
Auto Races
Golf
• Women took part in bicycling and sports clubs
• Social Darwinists said sports competition confirmed
the superiority of certain races
• Cafés and taverns enjoyed increased patronage
• Department stores grew significantly
• New inventions changed society
–
–
–
–
–
–
Telephone
Automobile
Gramophone
Radio
Motion pictures
Telegraph
• By 1900 England and France (Ferry Laws)
required school attendance to age 13 and
education was free
• Literacy rates increased
– Men higher than women
– Urbanites more than rural
– Northern/Western higher than Southern/Eastern
• Girls had less access to secondary education
(Females had to pay)
SCIENCE
• Louis Pasteur
– Developed germ theory
– Pasteurization
– Reduced food poisoning
• Joseph Lister
– Antiseptic principle in surgeries
– Fewer people dying of infection from surgery
• August Comte
– Positivism
– All intellectual activity travels through predictable stages
– Humans will one day discover the eternal laws of human
relations
– Wanted a religion of science
– Wanted rule to be by the Social Scientists
• Charles Darwin
– Theory of Evolution
– All life evolved gradually from a common origin
– Struggle for survival and adaption
• Herbert Spencer
– Social Darwinism
– Survival of the Fittest
– Imperialists and Industrialists used this theory to justify their
crushing of the competition
• Sigmund Freud
–
–
–
–
–
The human subconscious (ID) was not subject to reason
Sex was the driving force to one’s psychological make-up
Repressed sexual desires lead to psychological problems
Dreams
Hypnosis
• Marie Curie
– Discovered first radioactive element with her husband
• Max Planck
– Quantum theory that subatomic energy is emitted in uneven
spurts
– Laws of universe are now unpredictable
• Albert Einstein
– Theory of Relativity of time and space challenged Newton
– Time and space are relative to the observer
– E = mc2:
• Matter and energy are interchangeable
• Even a tiny particle contains enormous levels of potential energy
– Warned FDR that Germans were building an atomic bomb
• Darwinism challenged the Bible’s account of the
creation of humans
• Freudian psychology undermined the belief that
humans were rational beings in control of their
emotions
• Shattered belief that universe could be explained
easily via Newtonian phsyics
• This uncertainty created by physics along with
WW I will create an age of pessimism
REALISM
• Belief that literature and art should depict life as it
really was
• A reaction to the failure of the 1848 Revolutions
• Gustave Flaubert depicted middle class as petty, smug
and hypocritical
• Leo Tolstoy had a fatalistic view of history but regards
love, trust and everyday family ties as life’s enduring
values
• Artist were no longer dependent on patrons but created
art they could sell
• Ordinary people in urban settings became the focus of
Realism Art
• Millet, Degas, Manet
IMPRESSIONISM
• Impact of photography in which the subject is
captured accurately
• Painters sought to capture the momentary
feeling or impression of the scene right before
them
• Monet, Renoir
POSTIMPRESSIONISM
• Desire to know and depict worlds other than the
visible world can see
• Wanted to portray the unseen, inner worlds of
emotion and imagination
• A psychological view of reality
• Vincent van Gogh
• Paul Cezanne
• Pablo Picasso (Cubism)
RELIGION
• Nationalism decreased the influence of the Catholic
church in some areas
• Liberalism distanced society from the pope
• Pope Pius IX condemned liberalism and Italian
unification with his Syllabus of Errors
• 1870 the pope was declared to be infallible when
speaking on religious matters
• Pope Leo XIII issued Rerum Novarum that
condemned Socialism and Marxism while defending
private property (capitalism) in hopes Catholics would
participate in the politics of more liberal states
• It also wanted laws protecting workers from
exploitation
• Leo XIII announcement led to the creation of
Catholic Political parties
THE AGE OF MASS
POLITICS
CRIMEAN WAR
• Dispute between Catholics and Orthodox over
privileges in the Holy Lands
• Turks gave preference to Napoleon III and the
Catholics
• Czar Nicholas I believe Eastern Orthodox access was
in jeopardy
• Russia took Turk lands, Turks declare war on Russia
• Britain and France join the Turks who were Muslims
• Alexander II agreed to the Four Points ending the war
– Gave up protectorship of Grek Orthodox Christians
– Lost control of mouth of the Danube river
– Black Sea neutral
• Florence Nightingale = nursing
• Russia was behind militarily and move toward
industrialization and the modernization of its
army
THIRD FRENCH REPUBLIC
• President Louis Napoleon (1851) seen as symbol of
stability and greatness
• Favored by the church, army, property-owners and
business (conservatives)
• Falloux Laws returned control of education to the
Church
• Emperor Napoleon III (1852) centralized power with
censorship of the press and state controlled elections
until 1859
• Became more liberal after 1859.
• Infrastructure was improved (Georges von
Haussmann)
• Credit Mobilier funded economic growth
• Suez Canal completed
• Allowed trade unions to exist and allowed them
to strike
• Ended censorship and granted amnesty to
political prisoners
• Rescued Pope Pius IX
• Colonialism was a problem
• Foreign policy disasters caused these reforms to
occur divert attention from his failures
• Franco-Prussian War led to his collapse
• Napoleon III abdicates during the Franco-Prussian War
• Adolphe Thiers created a new government
• The Paris Commune was a radical communist group
that took over Paris
– Refused to accept treaty ending Franco-Prussian War
– Reused to accept the new government because they were
acting as royalists (Versailles)
• National Assembly put down the Paris Commune
• Third French Republic
– Trade unions legalized
– Multi-party system caused it to collapse several times
• Jules Ferry established a secular education system for
public schools
• Boulanger Crisis
– Plot to overthrow the government
• Panama Canal Crisis
– Ferdinand de Lesseps failure cost France millons
• Dreyfus Affair
– Anti-Semitism
– Captain Dreyfus accused of being a traitor
– Divided the country
• Emile Zola
– J’accuse
GERMAN EMPIRE
• Humiliation of Olmutz
• Zollverein
• Kleindeutsch plan
– Unified Germany without Austria
• Otto von Bismarck
– The iron chancellor for Wilhelm I who ran the government
• Gap Theory
– Legislature wanted reforms in the military and King disagreed
– No mention of what to do in case of a stalemate in the
constitution
– Since King created constitution then he can ignore the
liberals and make his own decisions
• Great questions of the day will not be decided
by speeches and resolutions (1848) but by blood
and iron (Bismarck)
• Prussian-Danish War
– Germany and Austria defeated Denmark
– Joint control of Schleswig and Holstein
• Austro-Prussian War
– Bismarck wanted a localized war
– Crushed Austria
• North German Confederation
– Reichstag
– Bypassed Middle Class
• Franco-Prussian War
– Ems Dispatch provoked war
– Southern German states join with Bismarck
– France is crushed
• Treaty of Frankfurt
– Alsace and Lorraine given to Germany/Prussia
• The German Empire (1871-1918)
• The Reichstag was the bicameral legislature that was
divided
– Conservatives = Junkers
– Center Party = Catholics
– Social Democrats = Marxists
• Bismarck considered the Social Democrats and
Catholic Center Party were the greatest threats to the
empire
• Bismarck developed a universal German legal code
• Kulturkampf
– Believed that Catholics could not be loyal to both Germany
and the Pope
– Education taken over by the state
– Veto power over clerical appointments
– Catholics stayed strong
• Social Democratic Party
–
–
–
–
Industrial workers
Wanted Socialism and Republicanism
Universal suffrage
Social programs
• Bismarck’s reforms
–
–
–
–
Health insurance (1st)
Social Security (1st)
Accident insurance
Child Labor regulations
• Kaiser Wilhelm II
– Fired Bismarck to get support from the workers
– Did not sign the Re-Insurance treaty with Russia
– Factory Inspection Act to improve work conditions
ITALIAN UNIFICATION
• Sardinia-Piedmont led the unification movement under
King Victor Emmanuel, Count Cavour and Garibaldi
• Realpolitik replaced romanticism
– Political outgrowth of Realism
– Accomplishing political goals through practical means
– Idealism is replaced with Machiavellian actions
• Prime Minister Count Cavour
–
–
–
–
Editor of Il Risorgimento
Created a liberal and economically sound state
Reduced the influence of the Church
Pope Pius IX issued his Syllabus of Errors warning Catholics
of liberalism, rationalism, socialism, and the separation of
Church and State
• Plombieres
– Napoleon III promise to support Sardinia in war against
Austria
• Unification
– Sardinia wins taking Northern Italy
• Giuseppe Garibaldi
– The Red Shirts liberated southern Italy and Sicily
• The Boot
– Garibaldi agreed to let his conquests be absorbed by King
Victor Emmanuel II who had supported him
• Venice
– Italy helps Prussia with Austrians
• Rome
– France pulled it’s troops because of war with Prussia
AUSTRIAN EMPIRE
• The Hungarians and Czechs demanded selfgovernment
• Ausgleich
– Creation of a Dual Monarchy (Austria-Hungary)
– Hungary had self-government but loyal to Franz
Jospeh
• Language
– German was a problem since only 25% of the
empire was German
• Anti-Semitism
GREAT BRITAIN
• Political re-alignment
– Tory Party becomes Conservative Party
– Whig Party becomes Liberal Party
• Benjamin Disraeli (Conservative)
– Aggressive Foreign Policy (Big England)
– Expansion of British Empire
– Reform Bill of 1867
•
•
•
•
•
Expanded Reform Bill of 1832
More equitable representation
Industrial cities gained seats from rural areas (rotten boroughs)
Right to vote for men over 21
Doubled the number of voters
– Reduced government regulation of trade unions
• William Gladstone (Liberal)
–
–
–
–
–
Irish Home Rule
Opposed imperialism
Abolished taxes supporting Anglican Church for Catholics
Australian Ballot (secret)
Civil Service Reform
• Fabian Society
– Revisionist Marxism
– Wanted Economic Socialism wtih Political Democracy
• Parliament Act of 1911
– Liberal Party
– Eliminated powers of the House of Lords
– House of Commons center of power
• Social Welfare State prior to WW I
–
–
–
–
–
–
Right of unions to strike
Workers Compensation
Unemployment insurance
Old-Age pensions
Compulsory school attendance
Tax increase on the wealthy to pay for social welfare
state
• Representation of People Act (1918)
– Suffrage for Women over age 30
– World War I
THE EASTERN QUESTION
•
•
•
•
•
Balkans
Ottomans “Sick Man of Europe”
Austrians, Russians and Serbians
Powder Keg of Europe
Pan-Slavism
RUSSIA
• Alexander II
–
–
–
–
Believed serfdom held back Russia’s modernization
90% of Russians worked in agriculture
Serfs could be bought and sold
Serfs could be conscripted into the military
• Emancipation Act (1861)
– Abolished serfdom
– Lived in mirs
• Mirs
– Regulated communes
– Collective ownerships delayed agricultural improvments
• Zemstvos
– Assemblies that administrated local areas
• Count S. Y. Witte
–
–
–
–
–
Oversaw Russian industrialization
Steel and Oil
Industrialization stimulated by RR construction
Trans-Siberian RR
Industrialization led to industrial suburbs
• Alexander III
– Autocracy, Orthodoxy, Russification
– Encouraged anti-Semitism (Pogroms)
• Zionism
– Theodore Herzl
– Jewish homeland in the Holy Lands
WOMEN’S SUFFRAGE
BRITAIN
•
•
•
•
Wanted better divorce laws
Women’s suffrage to improve exploitation and abuse
Millicent Garrett Fawcett demanded female suffrage
Emmeline Pankhurst was militant suffragette destroying
RR stations, works of art and store windows
• Hunger strikes
• Representation of the People Act (1918)
• Reform Act of 1928
– Suffrage for WOMEN over 21, yea baby
SCANDINAVIA
• First grant Women’s Suffrage
– Finland 1906
– Norway 1913
IMPERIALISM
CAUSES
CHINA, JAPAN & EGYPT
NEW IMPERIALISM
CRITICS
WORLD WAR I
CAUSES
WESTERN FRONT
EASTERN FRONT
MOBILIZATION FOR TOTAL
WAR
FOURTEEN POINTS
REVOLUTIONS IN GERMANY
AND AUSTRIA
PEACE SETTLEMENTS
RUSSIAN REVOLUTION
1905
WORLD WAR I
FEBRUARY REVOLUTION
OCTOBER REVOLUTION
TREATY OF BREST-LITOVSK
RUSSIAN CIVIL WAR
WOMEN
RESULTS
INTERWAR YEARS
MODERN PHILOSOPHY
• Friedrich Nietzsche (1844-1900):
– a. One of the most important critics of the rationalism of
the Enlightenment
– b. In Thus Spake Zarathustra (1883-85), he blasted religion and
famously claimed "God is Dead"
– · Claimed Christianity embodied a “slave morality,” which
glorified weakness, envy, and mediocrity.
– · Individualism had been quashed by society.
– c. In Will to Power (1888) he wrote that only the creativity of a
few supermen—übermenschen—could successfully reorder the
world.
– d. Though not widely read by his contemporaries, his writings
seemed relevant in the atmosphere of post-World War I
pessimism
• Existentialism took root in Continental
countries after World War II.
– a. In the wake of the horrors of World War II and
the advent of the atomic age, pessimism and
hopelessness were expressed by existentialists.
– b. Existentialists saw life as absurd, with no inherent
meaning.
– c. Viewed a world where the individual had to find
his own meaning
– d. Most existentialists were atheists
– e. Jean-Paul Sartre (1905-1980): Wrote that life had
no meaning and that humans simply exist
• · He was strongly attracted to communism
• f. Albert Camus (1913-1960)
– · Individuals had to find meaning to life by taking
action against those things with which they disagree.
– · Ones actions are derived from personal choices
that are independent from religion or political
ideology.
• g. Martin Heidegger and Karl Jaspers were also
prominent existentialists.
FREUD
• Freudian psychology was first developed in
the late 1880s by Sigmund Freud (1856-1939)
– a. Traditional psychology assumed a single, unified
conscious mind processed sensory experiences in a
rational and logical way.
– b. Freudian psychology seemed to reflect the spirit
of the early 20th century, with its emphasis on
humans as greedy irrational creatures.
– c. Became an international movement by 1910 and
received popular attention after 1918, especially in
Protestant countries of Northern Europe and the
U.S.
• d. Freud asserted that because the human
unconscious (ID) is driven by sexual, aggressive,
and pleasure-seeking desires, humans are
therefore NOT rational! The ID battles the Ego
& Superego
– · Ego: Rationalizing conscious mediates what a
person can do.
– · Superego: Ingrained moral values specify what a
person should do.
– · Shattered the enlightenment view of rationality and
progress.
• e. Freud agreed with Nietzsche that mechanisms
of rational thinking and traditional morals values
can be too strong on the human psyche
– · They can repress sexual desires too effectively,
crippling individuals and entire peoples with guilt
and neurotic fears
– · Many opponents and some enthusiasts interpreted
Freud as saying that the first requirement for mental
health is an uninhibited sex life
– · After WWI, the popular interpretation of Freud
reflected and encouraged growing sexual
experimentation, particularly among middleclass
women.
MODERN ART
WEIMAR REPUBLIC
RISE OF HITLER
GREAT BRITAIN
GREAT DEPRESSION
SPANISH CIVIL WAR
TOTALITARIANISM
SOVIET UNION
LENIN
STALIN
LIFE IN THE SOVIET UNION
ITALY
MUSSOLINI
LIFE IN FASCIST ITALY
NAZI GERMANY
NAZI IDEOLOGY
NUREMBERG LAWS
THE SS AND THE GESTAPO
LIFE IN NAZI GERMANY
HOLOCAUST
WORLD WAR II
LEAGUE OF NATIONS
APPEASEMENT
GERMAN-SOVIET NONAGGRESSION PACT
POLAND
CONQUEST OF WESTERN
EUROPE
VICHY FRANCE
THE FINAL SOLUTION
INVASION OF SOVIET
UNION
TURNING POINTS
DIPLOMACY
THE COLD WAR
ROOTS
CONTAINMENT
MARSHALL PLAN
BERLIN CRISIS
NATO AND NUCLEAR ARMS
KOREAN WAR
STALIN’S FINAL YEARS
IRON CURTAIN
KHRUSHCHEV
SUEZ CRISIS
SPUTNIK AND U-2
INCIDENT
BERLIN WALL
CUBAN MISSILE CRISIS
BREZHNEV ERA
VIETNAM WAR
WILLY BRANDT
DETENTE
HELSINKI CONFERENCE
AFGHANISTAN
GORBACHEV
INF TREATY
1989
FALL OF THE SOVIET
UNION
WESTERN
EUROPEAN
RECOVERY
WEST GERMANY
FRANCE
GREAT BRITAIN
ITALY
ECONOMIC MIRACLE
CONSUMERISM
OIL CRISIS
EUROPEAN UNITY
WELFARE STATE
FAMILY
WOMEN’S RIGHTS MOVEMENT
COUNTER CULTURE
DECOLONIZATION
INDIA
EGYPT
ALGERIA
MIDDLE EAST
ISRAEL
GERMAN UNIFICATION
YUGOSLAVIA
GUEST WORKERS