Transcript Chapter 24 - cloudfront.net

Chapter 24
An Age of Modernity and Anxiety,
1894 - 1914
Toward the Modern Consciousness:
Developments in the Sciences
European Intellectual Community
Prior to WWI – prominent thinkers had a sense of confusion and
anxiety about an impending catastrophe
Brought on by the growth of nationalism and technology
The Certainty of Science
Based on ideas from the Scientific Revolution & Enlightenment
Late 19th century - scientists questioned established scientific
theories
Marie Curie (1867-1934) and Pierre Curie (1859-1906)
Marie won Nobel Prizes in physics & chemistry
Discovered radiation (Marie ironically died from leukemia)
Atoms – small worlds with protons & electrons
Their experiments spawned a new theme in physics that studied
the disintegrative processes within atoms
Possible Test Question
Just prior to World War I, the European
intellectual community was marked by
Boundless enthusiasm, confidence, and
optimism about the future.
A sense of confusion and anxiety leading to
feelings of imminent catastrophe.
Total complacency on the part of a selfsatisfied mass public.
Grim determination among nationalists to adopt
and enforce international peace treaties.
A retreat into scientific materialism.
Max Planck (1858-1947)
Energy radiated discontinuously (irregular packets of
quanta)
Formation of quantum theory
Raised questions about the subatomic realm of the atom
& the building blocks of the material world
New physicists began to challenge and ultimately
invalidate some of the work of Newton
Albert Einstein (1879-1955)
Theory of relativity – space & time are not absolute
Four dimensional space-time continuum
Energy of the atom
Possible Test Question
The quantum theory of energy developed by
Max Planck raised fundamental questions
about the
Structure of stars.
Accepted medieval theories of chemical
reaction.
Subatomic realm of the atom and the basic
building blocks of the material world.
Safe transmission of electrical energy for
powering modern economies.
The electro-dynamics of moving bodies.
Toward a New Understanding of the
Irrational
Friedrich Nietzsche (1844-1900)
Glorifies the irrational
• Claimed humans at the whim of irrational life forces
“God is dead”
• Critique of Christianity
• Felt Christianity weakened Western creativity
Concept of the superman
• Superior intellectuals must rise up and lead the masses
Rejected democracy, social reform, & universal
suffrage
Henri Bergson (1859 – 1941)
French philosopher who accepted rational thought but
thought it was incapable of arriving at truth.
Georges Sorel (1847 – 1922)
Advocated revolutionary socialism through violence
Possible Test Question
Friedrich Nietzsche
Supported the Theory of Relativity.
Felt reform was needed in a healthy Catholic
Church.
Believed that Christianity had deeply
undermined the creative power of western
civilization.
Was an advocate of Darwin’s theories.
Was a major influence on Freud and the latter’s
theories of psychoanalysis.
Sigmund Freud & Psychoanalysis
Sigmund Freud (1856-1939)
The Interpretation of Dreams, 1900
Foundation of psychoanalysis
The Unconscious
Human behavior was influenced by the unconscious and by inner
desires
Id, Ego, and Superego
Id – center of unconscious (pleasure principle)
Ego – reason, coordinator of life (reality principle)
Superego – moral values of society
The superego served to force the ego to curb the unsatisfactory
drives of the id.
Dreams were the repression of unconscious desires
Oedipus Complex for men (Electra for women)
Desire for the parent of the opposite sex
Possible Test Question
According to Sigmund Freud, behavior was
Largely determined by genetics.
Shaped by one’s environment.
Determined by one’s unconscious and by inner
drives of which people were generally unaware.
Shaped by one’s socio-economic status as Marx
had argued.
Always predictable because of a “will to
power.”
Social Darwinism and Racism
Herbert Spencer (1820-1903)
British philosopher who applied Darwin’s ideas to
society
Societies are organisms that evolve through time by
struggling with their environment.
Progress came from the “struggle for survival”
Nationalism and Racism
Friedrich von Bernhardi (German general)
• Thought war was necessary for culture
• Evolutionary role “survival of the fittest”
Houston Stewart Chamberlain (1855-1927)
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The Foundations of the Nineteenth Century, 1890
Claimed Aryans were the creators of Western culture
Modern day Germans were the pure successors of “Aryans”
Aryan must be prepared to fight for Western Civilization
Possible Test Question
Social Darwinism was
Applying the ideas of Darwin to society.
An effort to explain the problems of society by
psychological means.
An explanation, sociologically, of Darwin’s
biological ideas.
Advocated by Nietzsche.
Condemned by Freud.
Possible Test Question
According to Houston Stewart
Chamberlain, the Aryans were
The degenerates of Western Civilization
exemplifying the vicious German combination
of social Darwinism, nationalism, and racism.
Conquerors of India.
The “fit” who would “survive” Darwin’s world
of devolution.
A fictitious people who were destined to rule
the Slavic people of the east.
The real creators of western culture.
The Attack on Christianity
Challenges to Established Churches
Scientific inquiry
Modernization – migration to the city
weakened the base of the church set in village
cultures
New political movements – governments
reestablished ties with the churches after 1848
Revolutions
Anticlericalism – backlash against union of
church & state after 1848 revolutions
Biblical higher criticism
• Ernst Renan wrote Life of Jesus
• Questioned the historical accuracy of the Bible
• Denied the divinity of Jesus
Response of the Churches
Rejection: Pope Pius IX, Syllabus of Errors
• Rigid stand against nationalism, socialism, religious toleration,
& freedom of speech & press
Adaptation: modernism
• New view on the Bible as a book of moral ideas
• Encouraged Christians to get involved in social reform
• Catholic Church condemned Modernism in 1907
Compromise: Pope Leo XIII
• Permitted the teaching of evolution as a theory
• De Rerum Novarum (1891)
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Asserted that socialism was Christian principle
upheld right to private property
condemned evils of capitalism
urged followers to join unions & social reform groups (attempt
to reconnect with the working class)
Possible Test Question
In his encyclical De Rerum Novarum
(1891), Pope Leo XIII
Endorsed Marxist conceptions of materialism.
Asserted that much in socialism was Christian
in principle.
Ordered Catholics to turn away from all forms
of political activity.
Began to question the necessity of the
sacraments.
Condemned “modernism” in all its
manifestations.
Naturalism & Symbolism in Literature
Naturalism
Artistic movement that was a continuation of realism but more
pessimistic
Émile Zola (1840 – 1902) – used Darwin’s ideas to set his stories
against the backdrop of urban slums & coalfields
• Themes of alcoholism & depression
• Best example of naturalistic literature
• “I have simply done on living bodies the work of analysis which
surgeons perform on corpses.”
Leo Tolstoy (1828 - 1910)
• War and Peace – set in the time of Napoleon’s invasion of Russia
• Realistic portrayal of military life & human character
Fyodor Dostoevsky (1821 – 1881)
• Maintained that the major problem was the loss of spiritual belief
• Used psychology & moral observation to examine human nature
• Crime & Punishment & The Brothers Karamazov
Symbolism
Objective knowledge of the world was impossible
Art should function for its own sake not society
Possible Test Question
The greatest difference between naturalism
and realism in literature was
Realism dealt more with themes like human
suffering.
Naturalism was more popular than realism.
In general, naturalism was more pessimistic
than realism.
Realism was simply a continuation of
naturalism.
In general, realism was more pessimistic than
naturalism.
Modernism in the Arts
Impressionism
Use of light and color
Left the studio & went out to paint what they saw
Camille Pissarro (1830-1903)
• Beginning of impressionist art
• Urged artists to paint nature, people and their surroundings
• Capture light, running water, emotion
Berthe Morisot (1841-1895)
• Female artist who used lighter colors and flowing brush strokes
Post-Impressionism
Kept the Light and color of impression and combined it with structure and
form
Shifted from objective reality to subjective reality
Viewed as the beginning of modern art
Paul Cezanne (1839-1906) – Woman with Coffee Pot
Vincent van Gogh (1853-1890) Starry Night
Monet - Impression, Sunrise
Morisot – Young Girl by the Window
Van Gogh’s Starry Night
Possible Test Question
In art, modernism found its beginnings in
the work of Pissarro called
Surrealism.
Abstract Realism.
Baroque.
Expressionism.
Impressionism.
The Search for Individual Expression
Photography
Cubism: Pablo Picasso (1881-1973) Les Demoiselles d’Avignon
• Use of geometric designs to re-create reality
Abstract Expressionism: Vasily Kandinsky (1866-1944) Abstract painting
Modernism in Music
Included:
Attraction to the exotic, nationalist themes, folk music and the lure of the
primitive
Edvard Grieg (1843 – 1907)
• Scandinavian composer who used folk music to present nationalist
themes
Claude Debussy (1862 – 1918)
• Impressionist musician who used music to evoke the emotion of
poetry
Igor Stravinsky (1882-1971) Rites of Spring
• Classic example of modernism in music
• Use of pulsating rhythm, sharp dissonances, and sensual dancing
caused a riot at its debut in Paris
Sergei Diaghilev (1872-1929)
• Russian ballet director who worked with Stravinsky
Picasso - Les Demoiselles d’Avignon
Kandinsky – Composition VIII
Possible Test Question
At its premier, Igor Stravinsky’s Rite of Spring,
now considered as a classic example of
modernism in music and ballet,
Drew great public acclaim as a modern masterwork.
Inspired many authors to write poems using the music.
Caused a great riot at the theater by the audience
because of its sharp dissonance, and blatant sensuality.
Restored audiences’ faith in music as a rational and
soothing art.
Was ignored when first performed and only became
recognized as a classic several decades later.
Politics: New Directions and
New Uncertainties
The Movement for Women’s Rights: Demands of Women
Sought reforms in family & marriage laws
• Secure divorces
• Equal control of property for married women
Teaching was the first profession open to women
Women were not allowed to go to medical school
Women who were Pioneers in Nursing
Amalie Sieveking (1794-1859)
• Founded the Female association for the Care of the Poor and Sick in
Hamburg, Germany
Florence Nightingale (1820-1910)
• Nurse in the Crimean War
Clara Barton (1821-1912)
• Nurse in American Civil War
Growing demands of suffragists
• Emmeline Pankhurst (1858-1928)
 Leader of the women’s suffrage movement in England
 Founded the Women’s Social and Political Union along with her
daughters
 Took a radical approach to gaining media attention for their
cause
 Publicity – Pelted gov. officials with eggs, chained themselves to
lampposts, burned rail cars, hunger strikes
 Emily Davison threw herself in front of the king’s horse (killing
herself) to draw attention to women’s suffrage
Peace movements
• Bertha von Suttner (1843-1914)
 Founded a peace movement in Austria to protest the growing
arms race in the 1890s
The New Woman
20th century women that supported new ideologies & sought equal
rights
Maria Montessori and Bertha von Suttner are both examples of
“new women”
Maria Montessori (1870-1952)
• Attended medical school in Rome
• New teaching materials
• Began the system of Montessori schools
 Natural & spontaneous education system that allowed children to learn at
their own pace
Possible Test Question
The leader of the women’s suffrage
movement in England was
Louise Michel.
Babette Josephs.
Emmeline Pankhurst.
Octavia Hill.
Violet Asquith.
Jews in the European Nation-State
By the end of the 19th century, Jews were emancipated in most
countries with some restrictions
Allowed them to get involved in politics and move out of the ghetto
Anti-Semitism
Revival of hatred towards Jews
Portrayed as the murders of Jesus
Strongest anti-Semitism was in Eastern Europe (Germany, Austria, &
Russia)
Persecution in Eastern Europe
Pogroms (massacres) in Russia
Emigration
Jews moved to U.S., Canada & Palestine
The Zionist Movement
Zionism
• Planned migration to Palestine to form a Jewish state
Theodor Herzl (1860-1904) leader of the Zionist Movement
The Jewish State, 1896
• Advocated Jews returning to Israel (Palestine) to form a Jewish state
• Gained support from Jewish bankers
• Slowly, Jews began to emigrate to Palestine
Palestine
Possible Test Question
Theodor Herzl, the leader of the Zionist
movement,
Advocated the creation of a Jewish state in Palestine.
Advocated the development of separate Jewish
communities in European cities.
Argued that Jewish assimilation into western European
society would only be complete when Jews renounced
their religious beliefs.
Argued that living conditions for Jews were better in
eastern Europe than in western Europe.
Demanded that war be declared against the Ottoman
Empire.
The Transformation of Liberalism: Great Britain & Italy
Britain
Working Class Demands
• Caused Liberals to move away from ideals (like laissez-faire)
Trade Unions
• Advocate “collective ownership” and other controls
• Unions grow in power
• Strike to demand a minimum wage
Fabian Socialists
• Stressed for workers to use their right to vote to capture the
House of Commons and pass legislation to help the laboring
class
• They were not Marxists
• They wanted social revolution through democratic means
Britain’s Labour Party
• Fabian Socialists & trade unions joined forces to form the
Labour Party
David Lloyd George (1863-1945)
• Abandons laissez-faire
• Backs social reform measures
• In order to implement the Liberal Party’s social reforms, he
curtails the power of the House of Lords
• National Insurance Act, 1911
 Sick pay, unemployment
• Beginnings of the welfare state
 Later legislation provided a small pension plan & worker’s
compensation
 Tax increases implemented on the wealthy class
Italy
Giovanni Giolitti (1903 – 1914)
• Prime Minister of Italy
Transformismo (policy of Giolitti)
• Transformism – political groups were transformed into new
government coalitions by political & economic bribery
• Giolitti’s policy eventually make Italian politics corrupt &
unmanageable
Possible Test Question
In order to implement the Liberal Party’s
social reform program, David Lloyd George
radically curtailed the power of the
Army and navy.
Bank of England.
Monarchy.
House of Commons.
House of Lords.
France: Travails of the Third Republic
Dreyfus Affair (1895 – 1906)
Evidence of renewed anti-Semitism in Europe
Dreyfus was a Jewish captain in the French military
Accused and found guilty of being a spy, sentenced to
life on Devil’s Island
More evidence revealed that the spy was a Catholic
officer
Military refused to try the Catholic officer
Dreyfus was eventually pardoned
Rise of Radical Republicans
Determined to make France more democratic
Targeted the army and the Catholic Church
Purge of anti-republican individuals and
institutions
1905- separation of church and state
Possible Test Question
The event which exemplified renewed antiSemitism in France in the late nineteenth
century was the
Boulanger coup.
Sorel uprising.
Dreyfus affair.
Zola capitulation.
The fall of the Third Republic.
Growing Tensions in Germany
William II (1888-1918)
Ran Germany as a authoritarian, conservative, military
state
Military and industrial power
By 1914, Germany was the strongest military and
industrial power in Europe
Pan-German League (radical right-wing politics)
Advocated:
Strong German Nationalism
Imperialism to united different social classes at home
Anti-liberal policies
Anti-Semitic policies
Austria-Hungary: The Problem of
the Nationalities
Parliamentary agitation for autonomy of
nationalities
Granting universal male suffrage only increased the
problem of governing multiple ethnic groups
Growth of German nationalism from a German
minority group caused problems in Austria
Magyar (Hungarian land owning class) agitation
for complete separation of Hungary from Austria
New Hungarian parliamentary leader kept Magyars
from rising up and worked to keep the Dual Monarchy
(Austria-Hungary) intact
Industrialization and Revolution in Imperial Russia
In 1890s, government sponsored massive industrialization
By 1900 the fourth largest producer of steel
Development of working class
Development of socialist parties
Marxist Social Democratic Party, Minsk, 1898
The Revolution of 1905
Russo-Japanese War, 1904-1905
• Russia’s defeat led indirectly to the Revolution of 1905
“Bloody Sunday” January 9, 1905
• Transport system wasn’t working due to the war, which led to
food shortages
• Workers went to the Winter Palace to present a list of
grievances to the Tsar
• Royal troops fired on the peaceful protest killing hundreds
• Workers called for strikes and organized unions
General strike, October 1905
Under pressure, Nicholas II granted civil liberties and a legislative
body, the Duma
Curtailment of power of the Duma, 1907
Possible Test Question
Russia’s disastrous defeat in the RussoJapanese war indirectly led to
The dismissal of Count Witte.
The loss of all of Siberia to Japan.
The enlargement of the Duma.
An unsuccessful coup by the Tsar.
The Revolution of 1905.
The Rise of the United States
Shift to an industrial nation, 1860-1914
World’s richest nation and greatest industrial power
9 percent own 71 percent of wealth
American Federation of Labor
Included only 8.4 percent of industrial labor
Lacked real power due to low membership
Progressive Era
Reform
Meat Inspection Act, Pure Food and Drug Act
Woodrow Wilson, 1913-1921
Income tax and Federal Reserve System
The Growth of Canada
Dominion of Canada
Quebec, Ontario, Nova Scotia, New Brunswick – 1870
Manitoba, British Columbia – 1871
Lack of real unity due to French Quebec
William Laurier, 1896, first French Canadian
prime minister
Made peace between French Canadians and the rest of
Canada
Helped industrialize Canada
Led to hundreds of thousands of immigrants
Canada, 1871
The New Imperialism
Causes of the New Imperialism
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Competition among European nations for prestige
Social Darwinism and racism
Religious humanitarianism, “White man’s burden”
Economic motives and military bases
The Scramble for Africa
South Africa
• Cecil Rhodes (1853-1902)
 Diamond and gold companies
 Takes the Transvaal (Dutch Region)
 Attempts to overthrow the neighboring Boer Government
• Boer War, 1899-1902
 British defeat Boers (Dutch) and offer them a lenient peace
• Union of South Africa, 1910
Possible Test Question
The Boer War was fought by the British in
Australia.
China.
Zimbabwe.
Botswana.
South Africa.
The Scramble for Africa (cont)
Portuguese and French Possessions
Mozambique
Angola
Algeria, 1830
West Africa and Tunis
The British in Egypt
Belgium and Central Africa
Leopold II, 1865-1909
International Association for the Exploration and Civilization of
Central Africa, 1876
Exploration of the Congo
French reaction is to move into territory north of the Congo River
German Possessions
Bismarck was against colonialism, he knew it helped win elections
South West Africa; Cameroons; Togoland; East Africa
Impact on Africa
By 1914, almost all of Africa was carved up between European powers
Map 24.1: Africa in 1914
Imperialism in Asia
The British in Asia
James Cook to Australia, 1768-1771
British East India Company
Empress of India bestowed on Queen Victoria, 1876
Russian Expansion
Siberia
Reach Pacific coast, 1637
Korea and Manchuria
China
British acquisition of Hong Kong
European rivalry and the establishment of spheres of influence
Japan and Korea
Matthew Perry opens Japan, 1853-1854
Southeast Asia
British and French control
American Imperialism
US and the Spanish-American War
Controlled Pacific Islands for military bases to trade with Asia
Responses to Imperialism
Africa
New class of educated African leaders
Resentment of foreigners
Intellectual hatred of colonial rule
• Political parties and movements
China
Boxer Rebellion, 1900-1901, Society of Harmonious Fists
Chinese nationalists who tried to kick foreigners out by force
• Brutally put down by armies from around the world
Fall of the Manchu dynasty, 1912, founding of the Republic of China
Sun Yat-sen (1866-1925)
• Overthrew the Manchu dynasty – China remained weak
Japan
Mutsuhito (1867 – 1912) – young emperor who westernized Japan
Meiji Restoration
• Created democratic political & financial institutions but remained
authoritarian in practice
• Imitation of the West – sent Japanese abroad to get a western education
India
Costs and benefits of British rule
Brought order & introduced technology but subjugated the people
Indian National Congress (1883)
Moderate, educated Indians began to seek self government
Possible Test Question
The Meiji Restoration in Japan
Successfully accomplished the expulsion of all
foreigners from the country.
Created a political system democratic in form but
rigidly authoritarian in practice.
Concentrated on the reestablishment of feudal
principles of decentralized government and native
Japanese values.
Sent many Japanese abroad to be educated in the ways
of the west and adopted many western reforms in
political and military organization.
B and D.
Map 24.2: Asia, 1914
International Rivalry and the
Coming of War
The Bismarckian System
Tried to preserve European peace
Wanted to isolate France (still mad over FrancoPrussian War)
The Balkans: Decline of Ottoman Power
• Russia and Austria-Hungary both want territory
Congress of Berlin (1878)
• Limited the size of the new Bulgarian state and humiliated
Russia in front of the European powers
New Alliances
• Triple Alliance, 1882 – Germany, Austria, Italy
• Reinsurance Treaty between Russia and Germany, 1887
 Bismarck didn’t want France and Russia to become allies
 Warned of a possible two front war
• Dismissal of Bismarck, 1890 by William II
Possible Test Question
The basis of the Bismarckian System was
The acquisition of a huge overseas empire.
The isolation of France through a series of
military alliances.
An enhanced civil service.
The creation of a German war college.
The incorporation of Austria-Hungary into the
German Empire.
New Directions and New Crises
Emperor William II and a “place in the sun”
• Aggressive policy of expansion
• Ended the Reinsurance Treaty with Russia
Military alliance of France and Russia, 1894
Triple Entente, 1907 – Britain, France, Russia
Triple Alliance, 1907 – Germany, AustriaHungary, Italy
Crisis in the Balkans, 1908-1913
Austria annexes Bosnia and Herzegovina, 1908
Serbian protest, Russian support of Serbia
Primary antagonists in the Balkans region were
Serbs and Austrians
First Balkan War, 1912
Balkan League (Serbia, Bulgaria, Montenegro, &
Greece) defeats the Ottomans
Second Balkan War, 1913
Couldn’t agree on division of Ottoman provinces of
Macedonia & Albania
Greece, Serbia, Romania, and the Ottoman Empire
attacked and defeated Bulgaria
Serbia’s ambitions
London Conference
Possible Test Question
The primary antagonists in the Balkans
region were
Serbs and Austrians.
Russians and French.
English and Germans.
Serbs and Croats.
Russians and Serbs.
The
Balkans
in 1878
Map 24.3: The Balkans in 1913