Transcript World War I - Amherst College

World War I
Death, Destruction, Displacement and
the Triumph of the Nation-State
A Century of Conflict
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Russian wars 1806-1812
Greek War of Independence 1821
Turko-Russian War 1828-1829
Second Turko-Russian War 1877-1878
The Balkan Wars 1912-1913
The First World War 1914-1917
The War of Independence 1917-1922
The theater of war
The Central Powers
The Entente Powers
MORE ALLIES JOIN IN ….
The War in the Middle East: The
Ottomans fighting on 4 fronts
A “Civilian” War
MOBILIZATION
DEATH AND DESTRUCTION
CIVILIAN AND MILITARY LOSSES
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FRENCH LOSSES
Total pop: 39.6 mil.
Military: 1,397,800
Civilian: 300,000
= 1,697,800
• + 4,266,000 military
personnel wounded
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OTTOMAN LOSSES
Total pop: 21.3 mil.
Military: 800,000
Civilian: 4,200,000
= 5,000,000
• + 4,247,143 military
personnel wounded
Total: 9.7 m military + 10 m civilian = 40 million deaths
Paris 1919: The Big Four
The Ideals of Self Determination
A free, open-minded, and
absolutely impartial adjustment of
all colonial claims, based upon a
strict observance of the principle
that in determining all such
questions of sovereignty the
interests of the populations
concerned must have equal
weight with the equitable claims of
the government whose title is to
be determined.
The Contest for Macedonia
Greek claims: HISTORY
In classical times, Greece and
Macedonia had a shared history
- Under Philip and Alexander the
Great, Macedonia part of
Greece
- Despite language difference,
religious difference,
Macedonians are “Greek in their
hearts”
Problems with using Alexander’s Empire as criteria of “Greek” identity:
I: Iran, Egypt, India, Afghanistan……. Where does it end?
II. Persians could claim the same territory?
III. The problem remains: how to define a “people”??
To the victors, the spoils:
sharing out the Ottoman Empire
The Bulgarian Claim
Macedonians closer to Bulgarian Church than
Greek Church
- not given option for independent Mac Ch.
- religious affinity, regardless of language
Everyone in region is Bulgarian if they are not
Greek or Turkish.
Greek and Turks exist only where those “people”
are in the majority.
All slavic speaking Macedonians are Bulgarians.
The Serbian Claim
Regardless of linguistic and religious
differences, all Christians in region are
Serbs.
Bulgarian, Serbian and Greek stats
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Bulgarian stats
499,000 Turks
1,181,000 Bulgars
229,000 Greeks
1,000 Serbs
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Serbian stats
231,000 Turks;
57,000 Bulgars;
201,000 Greeks
2,048,000 Serbs
Greek stats
634,000 Turks
332,000 Bulgars
653,000 Greeks
No serbs
How to reconcile these
differences?
Who is a Macedonian?
The Treaty of Sevres
Nationalism and Its Discontents:
Homogenization
Religious variety in 1912
Religious variety in 1922
Anatolia 80% Muslim
Anatolia 98% Muslim
Izmir 50% Muslim
34% Greek
3% Armenian
13% other
Izmir
100% Muslim
(approximate stats only)
The Arab Middle East:
the Sykes-Picot Agreement 1916
The Mandates
What is a mandate??
Mandates are territories “inhabited by
peoples not yet able to stand by
themselves under the strenuous
conditions of the modern world.”
France and Britain promise to assist the
mandates “until such a time as they are
able to stand alone.”
Transjordan, Syria, Iraq, Palestine
questions:
1) How were states’ borders chosen?
2) What was promised by Mandate
powers?
3) What happened to the principle of selfdetermination?
4) What about national identity?
5) How to create a nation-state?
Why does it matter?
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b)
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Origins matter
historical memory matters
Colonialism’s impact STILL matters
Disrespect, duplicity, domination are not
easily forgotten……
The Husayn-MacMahon
Correspondence, 1915
Context:
World War I : seeking advantages
British vs Ottomans
Ottoman prestige and Islamic credentials
Sharif Husayn of Mecca as a counterweight
From same family as the Prophet
Guardian of Holy Shrines
Arab
What was the deal?
Sharif Husayn would…..
- Come out against the Ottoman Empire
- Son would lead “Arab Revolt” 1916 to
destabilize OE and create impetus for
larger Arab revolts
- Give England preferential economic
contracts in a future country
In return…
The British would:
- Recognize Sharif Husayn as head of
dynasty
- Assure Sharif Husayn of a new country
and provide international recognition
“England to approve of the proclamation of
an Arab Khalifate of Islam”
What actually was promised?
McMahon (Oct 24, 1915)
{with the exception of lands claimed by the
French}…Britain is prepared to recognize
and support the independence of the
Arabs in all the regions within the limits
demanded by the Sherif of Mecca….
From Sharif Husayn (Jan 1, 1916)
…Your expression “we do not want to push
you to any hasty action which might
jeopardise the success of your aim” does
not need any more explanation except
what we may ask for, when necessary,
such as arms, ammunition, etc….
The Balfour Declaration
November 1917
His Majesty’s Government view with favour the
establishment in Palestine of a national home for
the Jewish people, and will use their best
endeavours to facilitate the achievement of this
object, it being clearly understood that nothing
shall be done which may prejudice the civil and
religious rights of existing non-Jewish
communities in Palestine, or the rights and
political status enjoyed by Jews in any other
country…
Anglo-French Declaration
November 1918
The object aimed at by France and Great
Britain…is the complete and definite
emancipation of the peoples so long
oppressed by the Turks and the
establishment of national governments
and administrations deriving their authority
from the initiative and free choice of the
indigenous populations…..
Did the British make
incompatible promises?
Was Colonialism simply
masquerading as “self
determination?”