Transcript 15-3 Classifying Sensory Receptors

Chapter 15
Sensory Pathways
and the Somatic
Nervous System
Lecture Presentation by
Lee Ann Frederick
University of Texas at Arlington
© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.
An Introduction to Sensory Pathways and
the Somatic Nervous System
• Learning Outcomes
• 15-1 Specify the components of the afferent and
efferent divisions of the nervous system,
and explain what is meant by the somatic
nervous system.
• 15-2 Explain why receptors respond to specific
stimuli, and how the organization of a
receptor affects its sensitivity.
• 15-3 Identify the receptors for the general senses,
and describe how they function.
© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.
An Introduction to Sensory Pathways and
the Somatic Nervous System
• Learning Outcomes
• 15-4 Identify the major sensory pathways, and
explain how it is possible to distinguish
among sensations that originate in different
areas of the body.
• 15-5 Describe the components, processes, and
functions of the somatic motor pathways,
and the levels of information processing
involved in motor control.
© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.
An Introduction to Sensory Pathways and
the Somatic Nervous System
• An Introduction to:
• Sensory receptors
• Sensory processing
• Conscious and subconscious motor functions
• Focusing on the “general senses”
© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.
15-1 Sensory Information
• Afferent Division of the Nervous System
• Receptors
• Sensory neurons
• Sensory pathways
• Efferent Division of the Nervous System
• Nuclei
• Motor tracts
• Motor neurons
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Figure 15-1 An Overview of Events Occurring Along the Sensory and Motor Pathways.
Motor Pathway
(involuntary)
Immediate Involuntary Response
Processing centers in the spinal cord or brain stem
may direct an immediate reflex response even
before sensations reach the cerebral cortex.
Sensory Pathway
Arriving
stimulus
Depolarization
of Receptor
Action Potential
Generation
A stimulus produces a
graded change in the
membrane potential
of a receptor cell.
If the stimulus depolarizes
the receptor cell to
threshold, action
potentials develop in the
initial segment.
Voluntary Response
The voluntary response, which is not
immediate, can moderate, enhance,
or supplement the relatively simple
involuntary reflexive response.
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Propagation
Axons of sensory neurons
carry information about
the type of stimulus
(touch, pressure,
temperature) as action
potentials to the CNS.
Motor Pathway
(voluntary)
Perception
Only about 1 percent of
arriving sensations are
relayed to the primary
sensory cortex.
CNS
Processing
Information processing
occurs at every relay
synapse. Sensory information may be distributed to
multiple nuclei and centers
in the spinal cord and brain.
15-1 Sensory Information
• Sensory Receptors
• Specialized cells that monitor specific conditions
• In the body or external environment
• When stimulated, a receptor passes information to
the CNS
• In the form of action potentials along the axon of a
sensory neuron
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15-1 Sensory Information
• Sensory Pathways
• Deliver somatic and visceral sensory information
to their final destinations inside the CNS using:
• Nerves
• Nuclei
• Tracts
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15-1 Sensory Information
• Somatic Motor Portion of the Efferent Division
• Controls peripheral effectors
• Somatic Motor Commands
• Travel from motor centers in the brain along
somatic motor pathways of:
• Motor nuclei
• Tracts
• Nerves
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15-1 Sensory Information
• Somatic Nervous System (SNS)
• Motor neurons and pathways that control skeletal
muscles
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15-2 Sensory Receptors
• General Senses
• Describe our sensitivity to:
•
•
•
•
•
•
Temperature
Pain
Touch
Pressure
Vibration
Proprioception
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15-2 Sensory Receptors
• Sensation
• The arriving information from these senses
• Perception
• Conscious awareness of a sensation
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15-2 Sensory Receptors
• Special Senses
•
•
•
•
•
Olfaction (smell)
Vision (sight)
Gustation (taste)
Equilibrium (balance)
Hearing
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15-2 Sensory Receptors
• The Special Senses
• Are provided by special sensory receptors
• Special Sensory Receptors
• Are located in sense organs such as the eye or
ear
• Are protected by surrounding tissues
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15-2 Sensory Receptors
• The Detection of Stimuli
• Receptor specificity
• Each receptor has a characteristic sensitivity
• Receptive field
• Area is monitored by a single receptor cell
• The larger the receptive field, the more difficult it is
to localize a stimulus
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Figure 15-2 Receptors and Receptive Fields.
Receptive
field 1
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Receptive
field 2
15-2 Sensory Receptors
• The Interpretation of Sensory Information
• Arriving stimulus reaches cortical neurons via
labeled line
• Takes many forms (modalities)
•
•
•
•
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Physical force (such as pressure)
Dissolved chemical
Sound
Light
15-2 Sensory Receptors
• The Interpretation of Sensory Information
• Sensations
• Taste, hearing, equilibrium, and vision provided by
specialized receptor cells
• Communicate with sensory neurons across
chemical synapses
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15-2 Sensory Receptors
• Adaptation
• Reduction in sensitivity of a constant stimulus
• Your nervous system quickly adapts to stimuli that
are painless and constant
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15-2 Sensory Receptors
• Adaptation
• Tonic receptors
•
•
•
•
Are always active
Show little peripheral adaptation
Are slow-adapting receptors
Remind you of an injury long after the initial
damage has occurred
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Figure 15-3a Tonic and Phasic Sensory Receptors.
Stimulus
Normal
Increased
Normal
Frequency
of action
potentials
Time
a Tonic receptors are always active and generate action
potentials at a frequency that reflects the background level
of stimulation. When the stimulus increases or decreases, the
rate of action potential generation changes accordingly.
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15-2 Sensory Receptors
• Adaptation
• Phasic receptors
• Are normally inactive
• Become active for a short time whenever a change
occurs
• Provide information about the intensity and rate of
change of a stimulus
• Are fast-adapting receptors
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Figure 15-3b Tonic and Phasic Sensory Receptors.
Stimulus
Normal
Increased
Normal
Frequency
of action
potentials
Time
b Phasic receptors are normally inactive, but
become active for a short time in response
to a change in the conditions they are
monitoring.
© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.
15-2 Sensory Receptors
• Adaptation
• Stimulation of a receptor produces action
potentials
• Along the axon of a sensory neuron
• The frequency and pattern of action potentials
contain information
• About the strength, duration, and variation of the
stimulus
• Your perception of the nature of that stimulus
• Depends on the path it takes inside the CNS
© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.
15-3 Classifying Sensory Receptors
• Classifying Sensory Receptors
• Exteroceptors provide information about the
external environment
• Proprioceptors report the positions of skeletal
muscles and joints
• Interoceptors monitor visceral organs and
functions
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15-3 Classifying Sensory Receptors
• Proprioceptors
• Provide a purely somatic sensation
• No proprioceptors in the visceral organs of the
thoracic and abdominopelvic cavities
• You cannot tell where your spleen, appendix, or
pancreas is at the moment
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15-3 Classifying Sensory Receptors
• General Sensory Receptors
• Are divided into four types by the nature of the
stimulus that excites them
1. Nociceptors (pain)
2. Thermoreceptors (temperature)
3. Mechanoreceptors (physical distortion)
4. Chemoreceptors (chemical concentration)
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15-3 Classifying Sensory Receptors
• Nociceptors (Pain Receptors)
• Are common
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•
•
•
In the superficial portions of the skin
In joint capsules
Within the periostea of bones
Around the walls of blood vessels
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15-3 Classifying Sensory Receptors
• Nociceptors
• May be sensitive to:
1. Temperature extremes
2. Mechanical damage
3. Dissolved chemicals, such as chemicals released
by injured cells
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15-3 Classifying Sensory Receptors
• Nociceptors
• Are free nerve endings with large receptive fields
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•
•
•
Branching tips of dendrites
Not protected by accessory structures
Can be stimulated by many different stimuli
Two types of axons - Type A and Type C fibers
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15-3 Classifying Sensory Receptors
• Nociceptors
• Myelinated Type A fibers
• Carry sensations of fast pain, or prickling pain,
such as that caused by an injection or a deep cut
• Sensations reach the CNS quickly and often trigger
somatic reflexes
• Relayed to the primary sensory cortex and receive
conscious attention
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15-3 Classifying Sensory Receptors
• Nociceptors
• Type C fibers
• Carry sensations of slow pain, or burning and
aching pain
• Cause a generalized activation of the reticular
formation and thalamus
• You become aware of the pain but only have a
general idea of the area affected
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15-3 Classifying Sensory Receptors
• Thermoreceptors
• Also called temperature receptors
• Are free nerve endings located in:
•
•
•
•
The dermis
Skeletal muscles
The liver
The hypothalamus
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15-3 Classifying Sensory Receptors
• Thermoreceptors
• Temperature sensations
• Conducted along the same pathways that carry
pain sensations
• Sent to:
• The reticular formation
• The thalamus
• The primary sensory cortex (to a lesser extent)
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15-3 Classifying Sensory Receptors
• Mechanoreceptors
• Sensitive to stimuli that distort their plasma
membranes
• Contain mechanically gated ion channels whose
gates open or close in response to:
•
•
•
•
Stretching
Compression
Twisting
Other distortions of the membrane
© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.
15-3 Classifying Sensory Receptors
• Three Classes of Mechanoreceptors
1. Tactile receptors
• Provide the sensations of touch, pressure, and
vibration
• Touch sensations provide information about shape
or texture
• Pressure sensations indicate degree of mechanical
distortion
• Vibration sensations indicate pulsing or oscillating
pressure
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15-3 Classifying Sensory Receptors
• Three Classes of Mechanoreceptors
2. Baroreceptors
• Detect pressure changes in the walls of blood
vessels and in portions of the digestive, respiratory,
and urinary tracts
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15-3 Classifying Sensory Receptors
• Three Classes of Mechanoreceptors
3. Proprioceptors
• Monitor the positions of joints and muscles
• The most structurally and functionally complex of
general sensory receptors
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15-3 Classifying Sensory Receptors
• Tactile Receptors
• Fine touch and pressure receptors
• Are extremely sensitive
• Have a relatively narrow receptive field
• Provide detailed information about a source of
stimulation
• Including its exact location, shape, size, texture,
movement
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15-3 Classifying Sensory Receptors
• Tactile Receptors
• Crude touch and pressure receptors
• Have relatively large receptive fields
• Provide poor localization
• Give little information about the stimulus
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15-3 Classifying Sensory Receptors
• Six Types of Tactile Receptors in the Skin
1. Free nerve endings
• Sensitive to touch and pressure
• Situated between epidermal cells
• Free nerve endings providing touch sensations are
tonic receptors with small receptive fields
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Figure 15-4a Tactile Receptors in the Skin.
a Free nerve endings
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15-3 Classifying Sensory Receptors
• Six Types of Tactile Receptors in the Skin
2. Root hair plexus nerve endings
• Monitor distortions and movements across the
body surface wherever hairs are located
• Adapt rapidly, so are best at detecting initial contact
and subsequent movements
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Figure 15-4b Tactile Receptors in the Skin.
b Root hair plexus
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15-3 Classifying Sensory Receptors
• Six Types of Tactile Receptors in the Skin
3. Tactile discs
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•
Also called Merkel discs
Fine touch and pressure receptors
Extremely sensitive tonic receptors
Have very small receptive fields
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Figure 15-4c Tactile Receptors in the Skin.
Merkel cell
Nerve
terminal
(dendrite)
Tactile disc
Afferent nerve fiber
c Tactile discs
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15-3 Classifying Sensory Receptors
• Six Types of Tactile Receptors in the Skin
4. Tactile corpuscles
• Also called Meissner’s corpuscles
• Perceive sensations of fine touch, pressure, and
low-frequency vibration
• Adapt to stimulation within 1 second after contact
• Fairly large structures
• Most abundant in the eyelids, lips, fingertips,
nipples, and external genitalia
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Figure 15-4d Tactile Receptors in the Skin.
Tactile
corpuscle
Epidermis
Capsule
Dendrites
Dermis
Sensory
nerve fiber
d Tactile corpuscle
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Tactile corpuscle
LM × 330
15-3 Classifying Sensory Receptors
• Six Types of Tactile Receptors in the Skin
5. Lamellated corpuscles
•
•
•
•
Also called pacinian corpuscles
Sensitive to deep pressure
Fast-adapting receptors
Most sensitive to pulsing or high-frequency
vibrating stimuli
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Figure 15-4e Tactile Receptors in the Skin.
Dermis
Dendritic process
Acceesory cells
(specialized fibroblasts)
Concentric layers
(lamellae) of collagen
fibers separated
by fluid
e Lamellated corpuscle
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Lamellated
corpuscle
(cross section)
LM × 125
15-3 Classifying Sensory Receptors
• Six Types of Tactile Receptors in the Skin
6. Ruffini corpuscles
• Also sensitive to pressure and distortion of the skin
• Located in the reticular (deep) dermis
• Tonic receptors that show little if any adaptation
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Figure 15-4f Tactile Receptors in the Skin.
Collagen Sensory
nerve fiber
fibers
Capsule
f Ruffini corpuscle Dendrites
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15-3 Classifying Sensory Receptors
• Baroreceptors
• Monitor change in pressure
• Consist of free nerve endings that branch within
elastic tissues
• In wall of distensible organ (such as a blood
vessel)
• Respond immediately to a change in pressure, but
adapt rapidly
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15-3 Classifying Sensory Receptors
• Proprioceptors
• Monitor:
• Position of joints
• Tension in tendons and ligaments
• State of muscular contraction
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15-3 Classifying Sensory Receptors
• Three Major Groups of Proprioceptors
1. Muscle spindles
2. Golgi tendon organs
3. Receptors in joint capsules
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15-3 Classifying Sensory Receptors
• Muscle Spindles
• Monitor skeletal muscle length
• Trigger stretch reflexes
• Golgi Tendon Organs
• Located at the junction between skeletal muscle
and its tendon
• Stimulated by tension in tendon
• Monitor external tension developed during muscle
contraction
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15-3 Classifying Sensory Receptors
• Receptors in Joint Capsules
• Free nerve endings detect pressure, tension,
movement at the joint
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15-3 Classifying Sensory Receptors
• Chemoreceptors
• Respond only to water-soluble and lipid-soluble
substances dissolved in surrounding fluid
• Receptors exhibit peripheral adaptation over
period of seconds
• Central adaptation may also occur
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15-3 Classifying Sensory Receptors
• Chemoreceptors
• Receptors that monitor pH, carbon dioxide, and
oxygen levels in arterial blood are located in:
• Carotid bodies
• Near the origin of the internal carotid arteries on
each side of the neck
• Aortic bodies
• Between the major branches of the aortic arch
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15-4 Sensory Pathways
• First-Order Neuron
• Sensory neuron delivers sensations to the CNS
• Cell body of a first-order general sensory neuron
is located in dorsal root ganglion or cranial nerve
ganglion
• Second-Order Neuron
• Axon of the sensory neuron synapses on an
interneuron in the CNS
• May be located in the spinal cord or brain stem
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15-4 Sensory Pathways
• Third-Order Neuron
• If the sensation is to reach our awareness, the
second-order neuron synapses
• On a third-order neuron in the thalamus
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15-4 Sensory Pathways
• Somatic Sensory Pathways
• Carry sensory information from the skin and
musculature of the body wall, head, neck, and
limbs
• Three major somatic sensory pathways
1. The spinothalamic pathway
2. The posterior column pathway
3. The spinocerebellar pathway
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Figure 15-5 Sensory Pathways and Ascending Tracts in the Spinal Cord.
Dorsal root
ganglion Dorsal root
Posterior column pathway
Fasciculus gracilis
Fasciculus cuneatus
Spinocerebellar pathway
Posterior spinocerebellar
tract
Anterior spinocerebellar
tract
Spinothalamic pathway
Ventral root
Lateral spinothalamic
tract
Anterior spinothalamic
tract
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15-4 Sensory Pathways
• The Spinothalamic Pathway
• Provides conscious sensations of poorly localized
(“crude”) touch, pressure, pain, and temperature
• First-order neurons
• Axons of first-order sensory neurons enter spinal
cord
• And synapse on second-order neurons within
posterior gray horns
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15-4 Sensory Pathways
• The Spinothalamic Pathway
• Second-order neurons
• Cross to the opposite side of the spinal cord before
ascending
• Ascend within the anterior or lateral spinothalamic
tracts
• The anterior tracts carry crude touch and pressure
sensations
• The lateral tracts carry pain and temperature
sensations
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15-4 Sensory Pathways
• The Spinothalamic Pathway
• Third-order neurons
• Synapse in ventral nucleus group of the thalamus
• After the sensations have been sorted and
processed, they are relayed to primary sensory
cortex
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Figure 15-6 Somatic Sensory Pathways (Part 1 of 4).
Midbrain
The anterior
spinothalamic
tracts of the
spinothalamic
pathway carry crude
touch and pressure
sensations.
Medulla
oblongata
Anterior
spinothalamic
tract
Spinal
cord
Crude touch and pressure sensations
from right side of body
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15-4 Sensory Pathways
• Feeling Pain (Lateral Spinothalamic Tract)
• An individual can feel pain in an uninjured part of
the body when pain actually originates at another
location
• Strong visceral pain
• Sensations arriving at segment of spinal cord can
stimulate interneurons that are part of
spinothalamic pathway
• Activity in interneurons leads to stimulation of
primary sensory cortex, so an individual feels pain
in specific part of body surface
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15-4 Sensory Pathways
• Feeling Pain (Lateral Spinothalamic Tract)
• Referred pain
• The pain of a heart attack is frequently felt in the
left arm
• The pain of appendicitis is generally felt first in the
area around the navel and then in the right, lower
quadrant
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Figure 15-6 Somatic Sensory Pathways (Part 2 of 4).
Midbrain
Medulla
oblongata
The lateral
spinothalamic
tracts
of the spinothalamic
pathway carry pain
and temperature
sensations.
Lateral
spinothalamic
tract
Spinal
cord
Pain and temperature sensations
from right side of body
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Figure 15-7 Referred Pain.
Heart
Liver and
gallbladder
Stomach
Small
intestine
Appendix
Colon
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Ureters
Table 15-1 Principal Ascending (Sensory) Pathways (Part 1 of 3).
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15-4 Sensory Pathways
• Posterior Column Pathway
• Carries sensations of highly localized (“fine”)
touch, pressure, vibration, and proprioception
• Spinal tracts involved
• Left and right fasciculus gracilis
• Left and right fasciculus cuneatus
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15-4 Sensory Pathways
• Posterior Column Pathway
• Axons synapse
• On third-order neurons in one of the ventral nuclei
of the thalamus
• Nuclei sort the arriving information according to:
• The nature of the stimulus
• The region of the body involved
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15-4 Sensory Pathways
• Posterior Column Pathway
• Processing in the thalamus
• Determines whether you perceive a given
sensation as fine touch, as pressure, or as
vibration
• Ability to determine stimulus
• Precisely where on the body a specific stimulus
originated depends on the projection of information
from the thalamus to the primary sensory cortex
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15-4 Sensory Pathways
• Posterior Column Pathway
• Sensory information
• From toes arrives at one end of the primary
sensory cortex
• From the head arrives at the other
• When neurons in one portion of your primary
sensory cortex are stimulated, you become aware of
sensations originating at a specific location
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15-4 Sensory Pathways
• Posterior Column Pathway
• Sensory homunculus
• Functional map of the primary sensory cortex
• Distortions occur because:
• Area of sensory cortex devoted to particular body
region is not proportional to region’s size, but to
number of sensory receptors it contains
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Figure 15-6 Somatic Sensory Pathways (Part 3 of 4).
POSTERIOR COLUMN PATHWAY
The posterior column pathway carries sensations
of highly localized (“fine”) touch, pressure,
vibration, and proprioception. This pathway is also
known as the dorsal column-medial lemniscus
pathway. It begins at a peripheral receptor and
ends at the primary sensory cortex of the cerebral
hemispheres.
Ventral nuclei
in thalamus
Midbrain
Nucleus
gracilis and
nucleus
cuneatus
Medial
lemniscus
Medulla
oblongata
Fasciculus
gracilis and
fasciculus
cuneatus
Dorsal root
ganglion
Spinal
cord
Fine-touch, vibration, pressure, and proprioception
sensations from right side of body
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Table 15-1 Principal Ascending (Sensory) Pathways (Part 2 of 3).
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15-4 Sensory Pathways
• The Spinocerebellar Pathway
• Cerebellum receives proprioceptive information
about position of:
• Skeletal muscles
• Tendons
• Joints
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15-4 Sensory Pathways
• The Spinocerebellar Tracts
• The posterior spinocerebellar tracts
• Contain second-order axons that do not cross over
to the opposite side of the spinal cord
• Axons reach cerebellar cortex via inferior cerebellar
peduncle of that side
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15-4 Sensory Pathways
• The Spinocerebellar Tracts
• The anterior spinocerebellar tracts
• Dominated by second-order axons that have
crossed over to opposite side of spinal cord
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15-4 Sensory Pathways
• The Spinocerebellar Tracts
• The anterior spinocerebellar tracts
• Contain a significant number of uncrossed axons
as well
• Sensations reach the cerebellar cortex via superior
cerebellar peduncle
• Many axons that cross over and ascend to
cerebellum then cross over again within cerebellum,
synapsing on same side as original stimulus
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Figure 15-6 Somatic Sensory Pathways (Part 4 of 4).
SPINOCEREBELLAR PATHWAY
The cerebellum receives proprioceptive information
about the position of skeletal muscles, tendons, and
joints along the spinocerebellar pathway. The
posterior spinocerebellar tracts contain axons that do
not cross over to the opposite side of the spinal cord.
These axons reach the cerebellar cortex by the inferior
cerebellar peduncle of that side. The anterior
spinocerebellar tracts are dominated by axons that
have crossed over to the opposite side of the spinal cord.
PONS
Cerebellum
Medulla
oblongata
Spinocerebellar
pathway
Posterior
spinocerebellar
tract
Spinal
cord
Anterior
spinocerebellar
tract
Proprioceptive input from Golgi tendon organs,
muscle spindles, and joint capsule receptors
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Table 15-1 Principal Ascending (Sensory) Pathways (Part 3 of 3).
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15-4 Sensory Pathways
• Sensory Information
• Most somatic sensory information
• Is relayed to the thalamus for processing
• A small fraction of the arriving information
• Is projected to the cerebral cortex and reaches our
awareness
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15-4 Sensory Pathways
• Visceral Sensory Pathways
• Collected by interoceptors monitoring visceral
tissues and organs, primarily within the thoracic
and abdominopelvic cavities
• These interoceptors are not as numerous as in
somatic tissues
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15-4 Sensory Pathways
• Visceral Sensory Pathways
• Interoceptors include:
•
•
•
•
•
Nociceptors
Thermoreceptors
Tactile receptors
Baroreceptors
Chemoreceptors
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15-4 Sensory Pathways
• Visceral Sensory Pathways
• Cranial Nerves V, VII, IX, and X
• Carry visceral sensory information from mouth,
palate, pharynx, larynx, trachea, esophagus, and
associated vessels and glands
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15-4 Sensory Pathways
• Visceral Sensory Pathways
• Solitary nucleus
• Large nucleus in the medulla oblongata
• Major processing and sorting center for visceral
sensory information
• Extensive connections with the various
cardiovascular and respiratory centers, reticular
formation
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15-5 Somatic Motor Pathways
• The Somatic Nervous System (SNS)
• Also called the somatic motor system
• Controls contractions of skeletal muscles
(discussed next)
• The Autonomic Nervous System (ANS)
• Also called the visceral motor system
• Controls visceral effectors, such as smooth muscle,
cardiac muscle, and glands (Ch. 16)
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15-5 Somatic Motor Pathways
• Somatic Motor Pathways
• Always involve at least two motor neurons
1. Upper motor neuron
2. Lower motor neuron
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15-5 Somatic Motor Pathways
• Upper Motor Neuron
• Cell body lies in a CNS processing center
• Synapses on the lower motor neuron
• Innervates a single motor unit in a skeletal muscle
• Activity in upper motor neuron may facilitate or
inhibit lower motor neuron
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15-5 Somatic Motor Pathways
• Lower Motor Neuron
• Cell body lies in a nucleus of the brain stem or
spinal cord
• Triggers a contraction in innervated muscle
• Only axon of lower motor neuron extends outside
CNS
• Destruction of or damage to lower motor neuron
eliminates voluntary and reflex control over
innervated motor unit
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15-5 Somatic Motor Pathways
• Conscious and Subconscious Motor Commands
• Control skeletal muscles by traveling over three
integrated motor pathways
1. Corticospinal pathway
2. Medial pathway
3. Lateral pathway
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Figure 15-8 Descending (Motor) Tracts in the Spinal Cord.
Corticospinal pathway
Lateral
corticospinal
tract
Anterior
corticospinal
tract
Lateral pathway
Rubrospinal tract
Medial pathway
Reticulospinal
tract
Tectospinal tract
Vestibulospinal
tract
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Figure 15-9 The Corticospinal Pathway.
Motor homunculus on primary motor
cortex of left cerebral
hemisphere
KEY
Axon of uppermotor neuron
Lower-motor
neuron
Corticobulbar tract
To skeletal
muscles
Midbrain
Cerebral peduncle
Motor nuclei
of cranial nerves
To skeletal
muscles
Decussation
of pyramids
Medulla oblongata
Pyramids
Lateral
corticospinal tract
Anterior
corticospinal tract
To skeletal
muscles
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Spinal cord
15-5 Somatic Motor Pathways
• The Corticospinal Pathway
• Sometimes called the pyramidal system
• Provides voluntary control over skeletal muscles
• System begins at pyramidal cells of primary motor
cortex
• Axons of these upper motor neurons descend into
brain stem and spinal cord to synapse on lower
motor neurons that control skeletal muscles
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15-5 Somatic Motor Pathways
• The Corticospinal Pathway
• Contains three pairs of descending tracts
1. Corticobulbar tracts
2. Lateral corticospinal tracts
3. Anterior corticospinal tracts
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15-5 Somatic Motor Pathways
• Corticobulbar Tracts
• Provide conscious control over skeletal muscles
that move the eye, jaw, face, and some muscles of
neck and pharynx
• Innervate motor centers of medial and lateral
pathways
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15-5 Somatic Motor Pathways
• Corticospinal Tracts
• As they descend, lateral corticospinal tracts are
visible along the ventral surface of medulla
oblongata as a pair of thick bands, the pyramids
• At spinal segment it targets, an axon in anterior
corticospinal tract crosses over to opposite side
of spinal cord in anterior white commissure before
synapsing on lower motor neurons in anterior gray
horns
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Table 15-2 Principal Descending (Motor) Pathways (Part 1 of 2).
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15-5 Somatic Motor Pathways
• The Corticospinal Pathway
• Motor homunculus
• Primary motor cortex corresponds point by point
with specific regions of the body
• Cortical areas have been mapped out in
diagrammatic form
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15-5 Somatic Motor Pathways
• The Corticospinal Pathway
• Motor homunculus
• Homunculus provides indication of degree of fine
motor control available
• Hands, face, and tongue, which are capable of
varied and complex movements, appear very large,
while trunk is relatively small
• These proportions are similar to the sensory
homunculus
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Figure 15-9 The Corticospinal Pathway.
Motor homunculus on primary motor
cortex of left cerebral
hemisphere
KEY
Axon of uppermotor neuron
Lower-motor
neuron
Corticobulbar tract
To skeletal
muscles
Midbrain
Cerebral peduncle
Motor nuclei
of cranial nerves
To skeletal
muscles
Decussation
of pyramids
Medulla oblongata
Pyramids
Lateral
corticospinal tract
Anterior
corticospinal tract
To skeletal
muscles
© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.
Spinal cord
15-5 Somatic Motor Pathways
• The Medial and Lateral Pathways
• Several centers in cerebrum, diencephalon, and
brain stem may issue somatic motor commands
as result of processing performed at subconscious
level
• These nuclei and tracts are grouped by their
primary functions:
• Components of medial pathway help control gross
movements of trunk and proximal limb muscles
• Components of lateral pathway help control distal
limb muscles that perform more precise
movements
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15-5 Somatic Motor Pathways
• The Medial Pathway
• Primarily concerned with control of muscle tone
and gross movements of neck, trunk, and proximal
limb muscles
• Upper motor neurons of medial pathway are
located in:
• Vestibular nuclei
• Superior and inferior colliculi
• Reticular formation
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15-5 Somatic Motor Pathways
• The Medial Pathway
• Vestibular nuclei
• Receive information over the vestibulocochlear
nerve (VIII) from receptors in inner ear that monitor
position and movement of the head
• Primary goal is to maintain posture and balance
• Descending fibers of spinal cord constitute
vestibulospinal tracts
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15-5 Somatic Motor Pathways
• The Medial Pathway
• Superior and inferior colliculi
• Are located in the roof of the mesencephalon, or
the tectum
• Colliculi receive visual (superior) and auditory
(inferior) sensations
• Axons of upper motor neurons in colliculi descend
in tectospinal tracts
• These axons cross to opposite side, before
descending to synapse on lower motor neurons in
brain stem or spinal cord
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15-5 Somatic Motor Pathways
• The Medial Pathway
• Reticular formation
• Loosely organized network of neurons that extends
throughout brain stem
• Axons of upper motor neurons in reticular formation
descend into reticulospinal tracts without
crossing to opposite side
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15-5 Somatic Motor Pathways
• The Lateral Pathway
• Primarily concerned with control of muscle tone
and more precise movements of distal parts of
limbs
• Axons of upper motor neurons in red nuclei cross
to opposite side of brain and descend into spinal
cord in rubrospinal tracts
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Table 15-2 Principal Descending (Motor) Pathways (Part 2 of 2).
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15-5 Somatic Motor Pathways
• The Basal Nuclei and Cerebellum
• Responsible for coordination and feedback control
over muscle contractions
• Whether contractions are consciously or
subconsciously directed
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15-5 Somatic Motor Pathways
• The Basal Nuclei
• Provide background patterns of movement
involved in voluntary motor activities
• Some axons extend to the premotor cortex, the
motor association area that directs activities of the
primary motor cortex
• Alters the pattern of instructions carried by the
corticospinal tracts
• Other axons alter the excitatory or inhibitory output
of the reticulospinal tracts
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15-5 Somatic Motor Pathways
• The Cerebellum
• Monitors:
• Proprioceptive (position) sensations
• Visual information from the eyes
• Vestibular (balance) sensations from inner ear as
movements are under way
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15-5 Somatic Motor Pathways
• Levels of Processing and Motor Control
• All sensory and motor pathways involve a series
of synapses, one after the other
• General pattern
• Spinal and cranial reflexes provide rapid,
involuntary, preprogrammed responses that
preserve homeostasis over short term
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15-5 Somatic Motor Pathways
• Levels of Processing and Motor Control
• Cranial and spinal reflexes
• Control the most basic motor activities
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15-5 Somatic Motor Pathways
• Levels of Processing and Motor Control
• Integrative centers in the brain
• Perform more elaborate processing
• As we move from medulla oblongata to cerebral
cortex, motor patterns become increasingly
complex and variable
• Primary motor cortex
• Most complex and variable motor activities are
directed by primary motor cortex of cerebral
hemispheres
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15-5 Somatic Motor Pathways
• Levels of Processing and Motor Control
• Neurons of the primary motor cortex
• Innervate motor neurons in the brain and spinal
cord responsible for stimulating skeletal muscles
• Higher centers in the brain
• Can suppress or facilitate reflex responses
• Reflexes
• Can complement or increase the complexity of
voluntary movements
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