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THE POLITICS OF RECONSTRUCTION ANDREW JOHNSON The politics of Reconstruction was complicated by the fact that Lincoln, his VP and successor Andrew Johnson, and the Congress all had different ideas of how Reconstruction should be handled LINCOLN’S PLAN Lincoln made it clear that he favored a lenient Reconstruction policy His Ten Percent Plan called for a pardon of all Confederates who would swear allegiance to Union (oath) When 10% of the voting population of a state took the oath, a state would be readmitted into the Union JOHNSON’S PLAN After Lincoln’s death, his VP & successor Andrew Johnson announced his own plan It differed only slightly from Lincolns: He excluded high ranking Confederates and wealthy planters from the oath, but did pardon 13,000 while contending that, “White men alone must manage the South” CIVIL RIGHTS ACT FROM HARPER’S MAGAZINE 1866 – BLACKS CELEBRATE One of the important acts passed by Congress was the Civil Rights Act -1866 This law gave African Americans citizenship and forbade states from passing laws discriminating against former slaves (Black Codes) THE DRED SCOTT DECISION A major Supreme Court decision occurred when slave Dred Scott was taken by his owner to free states Illinois & Wisconsin Scott argued that that made him a free man Finally in 1857, the Court ruled against Dred Scott citing the Constitution’s protection of property The decision increased tensions over slavery DRED SCOTT LOST HIS CHANCE AT FREEDOM BESSEMER STEEL PROCESS Oil was not the only valuable natural resource Coal and iron were plentiful within the U.S. When you removed the carbon from iron, the result was a lighter, more flexible and rust resistant compound – Steel The Bessemer process did just did (Henry Bessemer & William Kelly) BESSEMER CONVERTOR CIRCA 1880 TH 14 AMENDMENT In 1866, Congress passed the 14th Amendment which provided legal backing to the Civil Rights Act It prevented states from denying rights to people based on race This nullified the Dred Scott decision th 15 AMENDMENT Soon after Grant’s election, Congress passed the 15th Amendment This amendment stated that no one could be kept from voting because of “race, color, or previous servitude” The 15th Amendment was ratified in 1870 FREEDMEN’S BUREAU Congress also passed the Freemen’s Bureau Act which provided much needed aid to African Americans Included in the Act was money for education, hospitals, social services, churches, and help with labor contracts and discrimination cases EDUCATION WAS AN IMPORTANT PART OF THE BUREAU MIGRATION FROM COUNTRY TO CITY Discrimination and segregation were often the reality for African Americans who migrated North Rapid improvements in farm technology (tractors, reapers, steel plows) made farming more efficient in the late 19th century It also meant less labor was needed to do the job Many rural people left for cities to find workincluding almost ¼ million African Americans THE DAWES ACT - 1887 FAMOUS DEPICTION OF NATIVE STRUGGLE The Dawes Act of 1887 attempted to assimilate natives The Act called for the break up of reservations and the introduction of natives into American life By 1932, 2/3rds of the land committed to Natives had been taken JIM CROW LAWS • • • Southern states passed segregation laws to separate white and black people in public and private facilities These laws came to be known as “Jim Crow Laws”, named after an old minstrel song Racial segregation was put into effect in schools, hospitals, parks, and transportation systems throughout the South PLESSY v. FERGUSON • Eventually a legal case reached the U.S. Supreme Court to test the constitutionality of segregation • In 1896, in Plessy v. Ferguson the Supreme Court ruled that the segregation of races was legal and did not violate the 14th Amendment THE GRANGE AND THE RAILROADS Farmers were especially affected by corruption in the railroad industry Grangers (a farmers organization) protested land deals, price fixing, and charging different rates to different customers Granger Laws were then passed protecting farmers States were given regulation control of railroads by the Courts GRANGERS PUT A STOP TO RAILROAD CORRUPTION FARMERS ORGANIZE FOR CHANGE 1867 – Oliver Hudson Kelley started the Patrons of Husbandry, an organization for farmers that became known as the Grange By 1870, the Grange spent most of their time fighting the railroads Soon the Grange and other Farmer Alliances numbered over 4 million members POPULIST PARTY IS BORN Leaders of the farmers organization realized they needed to build a base of political power Populism – the movement of the people – was born in 1892 with the founding of the Populist, or People’s Party THIS POLITICAL CARTOON SHOWS A POPULIST CLUBBING A RAILROAD CAR POPULIST REFORMS Proposed economic reforms included; increase of money supply, a rise in crop prices, lower taxes, a federal loan program Proposed political reforms included; direct election of senators, single terms for presidents Populists also called for an 8-hour workday and reduced immigration INTERSTATE COMMERCE ACT In 1887, the Federal government re-established their control over railroad activities Congress passed the Interstate Commerce Act and established a 5-member Interstate Commerce Commission (ICC) The ICC struggled to gain power until 1906 1887 – CONGRESS PASSED THE ICA ECONOMIC DISTRESS HITS FARMERS Between 1867 and 1887 the price of a bushel of wheat fell from $2.00 to 68 cents Railroads conspired to keep transport costs artificially high Farmers got caught in a cycle of debt SOCIAL DARWINISM The philosophy known as DARWIN (RIGHT) Social Darwinism has its LIMITED HIS FINDINGS origins in Darwin’s theory TO THE ANIMAL of evolution WORLD Darwin theorized that some individuals in a species flourish and pass their traits on while others do not SPENCER WAS Social Darwinists (like THE ONE WHO Herbert Spencer) believed COINED THE riches was a sign of God’s PHRASE favor, and being poor was a “SURVIVAL OF THE sign of inferiority and FITTEST laziness THE HAYMARKET AFFAIR Labor leaders continued to push for change – and on May 4, 1886 3,000 people gathered at Chicago’s Haymarket Square to protest police treatment of striking workers A bomb exploded near the police line – killing 7 cops and several workers Radicals were rounded up and executed for the crime ORIGINS OF PROGRESSIVISM • As America entered into the 20th century, middle class reformers addressed many social problems • Work conditions, rights for women and children, economic reform, environmental issues and social welfare were a few of these issues IMPERIALISM AND AMERICA • • • Throughout the 19th century America expanded control of the continent to the Pacific Ocean By 1880, many American leaders felt the U.S. should join European nations and establish colonies overseas Thus began America’s foray into Imperialism – the policy in which stronger nations extend control over weaker nations WHY IMPERIALISM? • 1) Desire for Military strength – Mahan advised strong navy • 2) Thirst for new markets – to spur economy & trade • 3) Belief in Cultural Superiority – a belief that Anglo-Saxons were superior MUCKRAKERS CRITICIZE BIG BUSINESS Ida Tarbell Some view Michael Moore as a modern muckraker • Though most progressives did not embrace socialism, many writers saw the truth in Debs’ criticism • Journalists known as “Muckrakers” exposed corruption in business • Ida Tarbell exposed Standard Oil Company’s cut-throat methods of eliminating competition SOCIAL DARWINISM The philosophy known as DARWIN (RIGHT) Social Darwinism has its LIMITED HIS FINDINGS origins in Darwin’s theory TO THE ANIMAL of evolution WORLD Darwin theorized that some individuals in a species flourish and pass their traits on while others do not SPENCER WAS Social Darwinists (like THE ONE WHO Herbert Spencer) believed COINED THE riches was a sign of God’s PHRASE favor, and being poor was a “SURVIVAL OF THE sign of inferiority and FITTEST laziness WORKERS HAD POOR CONDITIONS Workers routinely worked 6 or 7 days a week, had no vacations, no sick leave, and no compensation for injuries Injuries were common – In 1882, an average of 675 workers were killed PER WEEK on the job WAR FEVER ESCALATES • Newspaper publishers William Randolph Hearst (New York Journal) and Joseph Pulitzer (New York World) exaggerated Spanish atrocities and brutality in “Headline Wars” Political cartoon: Pulitzer (left) and Hearst escalating and instigating war between the U.S. and Spain WAR ERUPTS WITH SPAIN • There was no holding back those that wanted war with Spain • Newspapers blamed the Spanish for bombing the U.S.S. Maine (recent investigations have shown it was a fire inside the Maine) • “Remember the Maine!” became a rallying cry for U.S. intervention in Cuba THE WAR IN THE PHILIPPINES • U.S. forces surprised Spain by attacking the Spanish colony of the Philippines • 11,000 Americans joined forces with Filipino rebel leader Emilo Aguinaldo • By August, 1898 Spain had surrendered to the U.S. in Manila U.S. WINS; SIGNS TREATY OF PARIS • The U.S. and Spain signed an armistice on August 12, 1898, ending what Secretary of State John Hay called “a splendid little war” • The war lasted only 15 weeks • Cuba was now independent • U.S. receives Guam, Puerto Rico, and “bought” the Philippines for $20 million Treaty of Paris, 1898 FILIPINOS REBEL • Filipinos reacted with rage to the American annexation • Rebel leader Emilio Aguinaldo vowed to fight for freedom and in 1899 he led a rebellion • The 3-year war claimed 20,000 Filipino rebels, 4,000 American lives and $400,000,000 (20x the price the U.S. paid for the land) U.S. troops fire on rebels FOREIGN INFLUENCE IN CHINA • China was a vast potential market for American products • Weakened by war and foreign intervention, many European countries had colonized in China • In 1889, John Hay, U.S. Secretary of State, issued the Open Door Policy which outlined his plan for free trade among nations in China Foreign nations were opening the door to China’s trade THE LUSITANIA DISASTER United States involvement in World War I was hastened by the Lusitania disaster The Lusitania was a British passenger liner that carried 1,198 persons on a fateful trip on May 7, 1915 A German U-boat sank the British passenger liner killing all aboard including 128 American tourists The Germans claimed the ship was carrying Allied ammunition Americans were outraged and public opinion turned against Germany and the Central Powers May 7, 1915 PROPAGANDA To popularize the war, the government set up the nations first propaganda agency called the Committee on Public Information (CPI) George Creel led the agency and persuaded many of the nation’s artists to create thousands of paintings, posters, cartoons and sculptures to promote the war SOCIAL CHANGE DURING THE WAR The greatest effect of the First World War on the African American population was that it accelerated the Great Migration The Great Migration was the large scale population shift for hundreds of thousands of blacks from the south to Northern cities They left to escape discrimination and to seek greater job opportunities This African American family settled in Chicago Popular destinations included Chicago, New York and Philadelphia SECTION 4: WILSON FIGHTS FOR PEACE Despite the hero’s welcome he received in Europe, Wilson’s plan for peace would be rejected by the Allies Wilson’s plan was called the “Fourteen points” Included in his “points” were: No secret treaties Freedom of the Seas More free trade Reduction of arms Less colonialism League of Nations to promote peace Wilson’s 14 points in his own short hand The N.Y. Times reports on the Lusitania AMERICAN POSTWAR ISSUES • The American public was exhausted from World War I • Public debate over the League of Nations had divided America • An economic downturn meant many faced unemployment • A wave of nativism swept the nation THE HARDING PRESIDENCY • Warren G. Harding’s modest successes include the Kellogg-Briand Pact which renounced war as a means of national policy (signed by 15 nations, but difficult to enforce), and the Dawes Plan which solved the problem of post-war debt by providing loans to Germany to pay France/Britain who then paid the U.S. Harding 1920-1924 HARLEM, NEW YORK Harlem, NY became the largest black urban community Harlem suffered from overcrowding, unemployment and poverty However, in the 1920s it was home to a literary and artistic revival known as the Harlem Renaissance AFRICAN AMERICAN WRITERS Mckay The Harlem Renaissance was primarily a literary movement Led by well-educated blacks with a new sense of pride in the AfricanAmerican experience Claude McKay’s poems expressed the pain of life in the ghetto LANGSTON HUGHES Missiouri-born Langston Hughes was the movement’s best known poet Many of his poems described the difficult lives of working-class blacks Some of his poems were put to music, especially jazz and blues SACCO & VANZETTI • The Red Scare fed nativism in America • Italian anarchists Sacco & Vanzetti were a shoemaker and a fish peddler • Convicted of robbery and murder despite flimsy evidence, their execution was symbolic of discrimination against radical beliefs during the Red Scare AMERICAN STANDARD OF LIVING SOARS • The years 1920-1929 were prosperous ones for the U.S. • Americans owned 40% of the world’s wealth • The average annual income rose 35% during the 1920s ($522 to $705) • Extra spending income increased A SUPERFICIAL PROSPERITY • Many during the 1920s believed the prosperity would go on forever • Wages, production, GNP, and the stock market all rose significantly • But. . . . PROBLEMS ON THE HORIZON? • Businesses expanded recklessly • Iron & railroad industries faded • Farms nationwide suffered losses due to overproduction • Too much was bought on credit (installment plans) including stocks GAP BETWEEN RICH & POOR • The gap between rich and poor widened • The wealthiest 1% saw their income rise 75% • The rest of the population saw an increase of only 9% • More than 70% of American families earned less than $2500 per year Photo by Dorothea Lange SEEDS OF TROUBLE • By the late 1920s, problems with the economy emerged • Speculation: Too many Americans were engaged in speculation – buying stocks & bonds hoping for a quick profit • Margin: Americans were buying “on margin” – paying a small percentage of a stock’s price as a down payment and borrowing the rest The Stock Market’s bubble was about to break THE 1929 CRASH • • • • • In September the Stock Market had some unusual up & down movements On October 24, the market took a plunge . . .the worst was yet to come On October 29, now known as Black Tuesday, the bottom fell out 16.4 million shares were sold that day – prices plummeted People who had bought on margin (credit) were stuck with huge debts • The U.S. was not the only country gripped by the Great Depression • Much of Europe suffered throughout the 1920s • In 1930, Congress passed the toughest tariff in U.S. history called the HawleySmoot Tariff • It was meant to protect U.S. industry yet had the opposite effect • Other countries enacted their own tariffs and soon world trade fell 40% HAWLEY-SMOOT TARIFF BONUS ARMY • A 1932 incident further damaged Hoover’s image • That spring about 15,000 World War I vets arrived in Washington to support a proposed bill • The Patman Bill would have authorized Congress to pay a bonus to WWI vets immediately • The bonus was scheduled to be paid in 1945 --- The Army vets wanted it NOW AMERICANS GAIN CONFIDENCE IN BANKS • Next, FDR passed the Glass-Steagall Act which established the Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation • The FDIC insured account holders up to $5,000 and set strict standards for banks to follow (today = $250,000) MORE 100 DAYS ACTIVITY • Federal Securities Act: Required stock info to be accurate and truthful • Agricultural Adjustment Act: (AAA) Raised crop prices by lowering production • Tennessee Valley Authority: (TVA) Focused on direct relief to hard hit area– created ambitious dam projects CONGRESS GETS BUSY • FDR’s philosophy was to get people help and work through “deficit” spending • During the 100 Days, Congress passed more than 15 major pieces of legislation that significantly expanded government’s role in the nation’s economy and welfare WPA BUILDS AMERICA The Davis Street School Extension in Atlanta under construction as part of the Works Progress Administration Program, November 2, 1936 • WPA workers built 850 airports, 651,000 miles of roads and streets, and 125,000 public buildings • The WPA also hired artists, writers and photographers to create art FDR REGAINS CONTROL OVER SUPREME COURT • From the mid to late 1930s, FDR was able to appoint 7 new judges to the Supreme Court, thus assuring that his programs would carry on unabated THE FLAPPER During the 1920s, a new ideal emerged for some women: the Flapper A Flapper was an emancipated young woman who embraced the new fashions and urban attitudes MARCUS GARVEY - UNIA Garvey represented a more radical approach Marcus Garvey believed that African Americans should build a separate society (Africa) In 1914, Garvey founded the Universal Negro Improvement Association Garvey claimed a million members by the mid-1920s He left a powerful legacy of black pride, economic independence and PanAfricanism THE GREAT ARSENAL OF DEMOCRACY • To support Britain, FDR established a “LendLease Plan” which meant the U.S. would lend or lease arms to nations whose defense was vital to America • America was becoming the “Great Arsenal of Democracy” supplying weapons to fighting democracies WOMEN JOIN THE FIGHT • Army Chief of Staff General George Marshall pushed for the formation of the Women’s Auxiliary Army Corps (WAAC) • Under this program women worked in noncombat roles such as nurses, ambulance drivers, radio operators, and pilots INTERNMENT OF JAPANESE AMERICANS • When the war began, 120,000 Japanese Americans lived in the U.S. – mostly on the West Coast • After Pearl Harbor, many people were suspicious of possible spy activity by Japanese Americans • In 1942, FDR ordered Japanese Americans into 10 relocation centers Japanese Americans felt the sting of discrimination during WWII Location of the 10 Internment camps INVADE JAPAN? • After Okinawa, MacArthur predicted that a Normandy type amphibious invasion of Japan would result in 1,500,000 Allied deaths • President Truman saw only one way to avoid an invasion of Japan . . . Okinawa The loss of life at Iwo Jima and Okinawa convinced Allied leaders that an invasion of Japan was not the best idea U.S. DROPS TWO ATOMIC BOMBS ON JAPAN • • Truman warned Japan in late July 1945 that without a immediate Japanese surrender, it faced “prompt and utter destruction” On August 6 (Hiroshima) and August 9 (Nagasaki) a B-29 bomber dropped Atomic Bombs on Japan The plane and crew that dropped an atomic bomb on Hiroshima, Japan THE FINAL SOLUTION • The Final Solution – a policy of genocide that involved the deliberate and systematic killing of an entire population – rested on the belief that Aryans were superior people and that the purity of the “Master Race” must be preserved Hitler was responsible for the murder of more than half of the world’s Jewish population YALTA AGREEMENTS • • • 1) They agreed to divide Germany into 4 occupied zones after the war 2) Stalin agreed to free elections in Eastern Europe 3) Stalin agreed to help the U.S. in the war against Japan and to join the United Nations NUREMBERG WAR TRIALS Herman Goering, Hitler's right-hand man and chief architect of the German war effort, testifies at his trial. He was found guilty of war crimes but avoided execution by swallowing potassium cyanide. • • • The discovery of Hitler’s death camps led the Allies to put 24 surviving Nazi leaders on trial for crimes against humanity, crimes against the peace, and war crimes The trials were held in Nuremberg, Germany “I was only following orders” was not an acceptable defense as 12 of the 24 were sentenced to death and the others to life in prison THE HOME FRONT • The war provided a lift to the U.S. economy • Jobs were abundant and despite rationing and shortages, people had money to spend • By the end of the war, America was the world’s dominant economic and military power The Potsdam Conference • July 1945 conference between U.S., Great Britain, and Soviet Union. • Stalin does not allow free, multiparty elections in Poland. Bans democratic parties. Churchill, Truman, and Stalin at Potsdam • U.S. wants Eastern European raw materials Becomes apparent at Potsdam that and markets. U.S. and Soviet interests conflict. Two Nations Live on the Edge • During the 1950s, the U.S. and Soviet Union come to the brink of nuclear war. • Race for the H-bomb: – Hydrogen bomb: nuclear weapon more powerful than the atomic bomb. – 1952 U.S. explodes first H-bomb. 1953 Soviets explode one. Brinkmanship • John Foster Dulles (Eisenhower’s secretary of state) proposes brinkmanship: – Willingness to risk nuclear war to prevent the spread of communism. • The nation prepares for the threat of nuclear war. • Millions can die in nuclear war occurs. Soviet Premier Nikita Kruschev and President John F. Kennedy Anti-Communist Measures • States and towns forbid speech favoring violent overthrow of government. • Millions forced to take loyalty oaths and are investigated. • People become afraid to speak out on public issues. McCarthyism • Senator Joseph McCarthy strong anti-Communist activist. • Needs successful issue to win reelection. • McCarthyism—attacking suspected Communists without evidence. • McCarthy accuses members of state department and U.S. Army. • Televised hearings show him bullying witnesses. • Loses public support. NATO Alliance • Fear of Soviets leads to North Atlantic Treaty Organization • European nations, U.S., Canada pledge mutual military support. Warsaw Pact • U.S.- Soviet relations thaw after Stalin’s death in 1953. • West Germany’s entry into NATO scares Soviets. • Form Warsaw Pact-military alliance with 7 Eastern European countries. GI BILL HELPS RETURNING VETS • To help returning servicemen ease back into civilian life, Congress passed the Servicemen’s Readjustment Act (GI Bill of Rights) • The act provided education for 7.8 million vets Containment • U.S. policy to prevent spread of Communism. • Churchill describes the division of Europe between Capitalist and Communist the “iron curtain” FRANCHISES EMERGE Another strategy for business expansion was franchising A franchise is a company that offers similar services in many locations Fast food restaurants developed the first franchises in America McDonald’s is one of the leading franchises in the world The Truman Doctrine (Containment) • 1945-1991 era known as Cold War between U.S. and U.S.S.R. • Neither nation directly fights on battlefield. • Truman Doctrine-U.S. policy of send aid to any nation trying to prevent a Communist takeover. – The U.S. replaces British aid to Greece and Turkey to reduce Communist threat in those nations. President Harry Truman Warsaw Pact • U.S.- Soviet relations thaw after Stalin’s death in 1953. • West Germany’s entry into NATO scares Soviets. • Form Warsaw Pact-military alliance with 7 Eastern European countries. The Korean War • th 38 parallel (38̊ N latitude) divides Korea after Japanese surrender of WWII. – North surrendered to U.S.S.R., the South to U.S. • 1950 North Korea invades South Korea: begins the Korean War. • South Korea asks UN to stop invasion and Security Council approves. • MacArthur put in command of South Korean, U.S., and other forces. The U.S. in Korea • MacArthur recommends war with China-Truman denies request. • The U.S. and U.N. forces fought back to the 38th parallel. • Truman fires MacArthur after repeated pushes to invade China; MacArthur publicly criticized Truman • Public outraged over firing of war hero. • Truman’s decision upheld by Congressional committee. General Douglas MacArthur President Harry Truman Brinkmanship • John Foster Dulles (Eisenhower’s secretary of state) proposes brinkmanship: – Willingness to risk nuclear war to prevent the spread of communism. • The nation prepares for the threat of nuclear war. • Millions can die in nuclear war occurs. Soviet Premier Nikita Kruschev and President John F. Kennedy KENNEDY RESPONDS American president John F Kennedy making his dramatic television broadcast to announce the Cuba blockade during the Cuban Missile Crisis • Kennedy made it clear the U.S. would not tolerate nuclear weapons in Cuba • When surveillance photos revealed nukes ready to launch in Cuba, JFK said the U.S. would respond to any attack from Cuba with an all-out nuclear retaliation against the Soviets