Transcript Chapter 3

Management
Information Systems,
10/e
Raymond McLeod and George Schell
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Management Information Systems, 10/e
Raymond McLeod and George Schell
1
Chapter 11
Decision Support Systems
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Learning Objectives
► Understand
the fundamentals of decision
making & problem solving.
► Know how the decision support system
(DSS) concept originated.
► Know the fundamentals of mathematical
modeling.
► Know how to use an electronic spreadsheet
as a mathematical model.
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Learning Objectives (Cont’d)
► Be
familiar with how artificial intelligence
emerged as a computer application & know
its main areas.
► Know the four basic parts of an expert
system.
► Know what a group decision support system
(GDSS) is & the different environmental
settings that can be used.
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Problem-Solving & Decision Making
Review
► Problem
solving consists of response to
things going well & also to things going
badly.
► Problem is a condition or event that is
harmful or potentially harmful to a firm or
that is beneficial or potentially beneficial.
► Decision making is the act of selecting
from alternative problem solutions.
► Decision is a selected course of action.
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Problem-Solving Phases
► Herbert
A. Simon’s four basic phases:
 Intelligence phase – Searching the
environment for conditions calling for a solution.
 Design activity – inventing, developing, &
analyzing possible course of actions.
 Choice activity – Selecting a particular course
of action from those available.
 Review activity – Assessing past choices.
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Frameworks & Systems Approach
► Problem-solving
frameworks
 General systems model of the firm.
 Eight-element environmental model.
► Systems
approach to problem-solving,
involves a series of steps grouped into three
phases – preparation effort, definition effort,
& solution effort.
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Importance of Systems View
►
Systems view which regards business operations as
systems embedded within a larger environmental setting;
abstract way of thinking; potential value to the manager.
 Prevents the manager from getting lost in the
complexity of the organizational structure & details of
the job.
 Recognizes the necessity of having good objectives.
 Emphasizes the importance of all of the parts of the
organization working together.
 Acknowledges the interconnections of the organization
with its environment.
 Places a high value on feedback information that can
only be achieved by means of a closed-loop system.
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Building on the Concepts
►
Elements of a problem-solving phase.
 Desired state – what the system should achieve.
 Current state – what the system is now achieving.
 Solution criterion – difference between the current state
& the desired state.
►
►
Constraints.
 Internal take the form of limited resources that exist within
the firm.
 Environmental take the form of pressures from various
environmental elements that restrict the flow of resources
into & out of the firm.
When all of these elements exist & the manager understands
them, a solution to the problem is possible!
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Figure 11.1 Elements of the
Problem-Solving Process
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Selecting the Best Solution
► Henry
Mintzberg, management theorist, has
identified three approaches:
► Analysis – a systematic evaluation of
options.
► Judgment – the mental process of a single
manager.
► Bargaining – negotiations between several
managers.
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Problem vs. Symptoms
► Symptom
is a condition produced by the problem.
► Structured problem consists of elements &
relationships between elements, all of which are
understood by the problem solver.
► Unstructured problem is one that contains no
elements or relationships between elements that are
understood by the problem solver.
► Semistructured problem is one that contains some
elements or relationships that are understood by the
problem solver & some that are not.
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Types of Decisions
►
Programmed decisions are “repetitive & routine, to
the extent that a definite procedure has been
worked out for handling them so that they don’t
have to be treated de novo (as new) each time
they occur.
► Nonprogrammed decisions are “novel, unstructured,
& unusually consequential. There’s no cut-anddried method for handling the problem because its
precise nature & structure are elusive or complex,
because it is so important that it deserves a
custom-tailored treatment”.
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Decision Support Systems
►
►
►
►
Gorry & Scott Morton (1971) argued that an information
system that focused on single problems faced by single
managers would provide better support.
Central to their concept was a table, called the Gorry-Scott
Morton grid (Figure 11.2) that classifies problems in terms
of problem structure & management level.
The top level is called the strategic planning level, the
middle level - the management control level, & the lower
level - the operational control level.
Gorry & Scott Morton also used the term decision support
system (DSS) to describe the systems that could provide
the needed support.
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Figure 11.2 The Gorry & ScottMorton Grid
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A DSS Model
Originally the DSS was conceived to produce periodic &
special reports (responses to database queries), & outputs
from mathematical models.
► An ability was added to permit problem solvers to work in
groups.
► The addition of groupware enabled the system to function
as a group decision support system (GDSS).
► Figure 11.3 is a model of a DSS. The arrow at the bottom
indicates how the configuration has expanded over time.
► More recently, artificial intelligence (AI) capability has been
added, along with an ability to engage in online analytical
programming (OLAP).
►
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Figure 11.3 DSS Model that
Incorporates GDSS, OLAP, & AI
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Mathematical Modeling
►
►
Model is an abstraction of something. It represents some
object or activity, which is called an entity.
There are four basic types of models:
 Physical model is a three-dimensional representation
of its entity.
 Narrative model, which describes its entity with
spoken or written words.
 Graphic model represents its entity with an
abstraction of lines, symbols, or shapes (Figure 11.4).
► Economic
order quantity (EOQ) is the optimum quantity of
replenishment stock to order from a supplier.
 Mathematical model is any mathematical formula or
equation.
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Formula to Compute Economic Order
Quantity (EOQ)
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Figure 11.4 Graphical Model of EOQ
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Uses of Models
Facilitate Understanding: Once a simple model is
understood, it can gradually be made more complex so as
to more accurately represent its entity.
► Facilitate Communication: All four types of models can
communicate information quickly and accurately.
► Predict the Future: The mathematical model can predict
what might happen in the future but a manager must use
judgment & intuition in evaluating the output.
► A mathematical model can be classified in terms of three
dimensions: the influence of time, the degree of certainty,
& the ability to achieve optimization.
►
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Classes of Mathematical Models
►
►
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Static model doesn’t include time as a variable but deals
only with a particular point in time.
Dynamic model includes time as a variable; it represents
the behavior of the entity over time.
Probabilistic model includes probabilities. Otherwise, it
is a deterministic model.
 Probability is the chance that something will happen.
►
►
Optimizing model is one that selects the best solution
among the alternatives.
Suboptimizing model (satisficing model) does not
identify the decisions that will produce the best outcome
but leaves that task to the manager.
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Simulation
The act of using a model is called simulation while the
term scenario is used to describe the conditions that
influence a simulation.
► For example, if you are simulating an inventory system, as
shown in Figure 11.5, the scenario specifies the beginning
balance & the daily sales units.
► Models can be designed so that the scenario data
elements are variables, thus enabling different values to
be assigned.
► The input values the manager enters to gauge their impact
on the entity are known as decision variables.
► Figure 11.5 gives an example of decision variables such as
order quantity, reorder point, & lead time.
►
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Figure 11.5 Scenario Data & Decision
Variables from a Simulation
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Simulation Technique & Format of
Simulation Output
► The
manager usually executes an optimizing
model only a single time.
► Suboptimizing models, however, are run over &
over, in a search for the combination of decision
variables that produces a satisfying outcome
(known as playing the what-if game).
► Each time the model is run, only one decision
variable should be changed, so its influence can be
seen.
► This way, the problem solver systematically
discovers the combination of decisions leading to a
desirable solution.
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A Modeling Example
A firm’s executives may use a math model to assist in
making key decisions & to simulate the effect of:
1.Price of the product;
2.Amount of plant investment;
3.Amount to be invested in marketing activity;
4.Amount to be invested in R & D.
► Furthermore, executives want to simulate 4 quarters of
activity & produce 2 reports: an operating statement & an
income statement.
► Figures 11.6 and 11.7 shows the input screen used to
enter the scenario data elements for the prior quarter &
next quarter, respectively.
►
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Figure 11.6 Model Input Screen for
Entering Scenario Data for Prior
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Figure 11.7 Model Input Screen for
Entering Scenario Data for Next
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Model Output
► The
next quarter’s activity (Quarter 1) is
simulated, & the after-tax profit is displayed on
the screen.
► The executives then study the figure & decide on
the set of decisions to be used in Quarter 2. These
decisions are entered & the simulation is repeated.
► This process continues until all four quarters have
been simulated. At this point the screen has the
appearance shown in Figure 11.8.
► The operating statement in Figure 11.9 & the
income statement in Figure 11.10 are displayed on
separate screens.
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Figure 11.8 Summary Output from
the Model
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Figure 11.9 Operating Statement
Shows Nonmonetary Results
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Figure 11.10 Income Statement
Shows Nonmonetary Results
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Modeling Advantages &
Disadvantages
►
Advantages:
 The modeling process is a learning experience.
 The speed of the simulation process enables the consideration of a
larger number of alternatives.
 Models provide a predictive power - a look into the future - that no
other information-producing method offers.
 Models are less expensive than the trial-and-error method.
►
Disadvantages:
 The difficulty of modeling a business system will produce a model
that does not capture all of the influences on the entity.
 A high degree of mathematical skill is required to develop &
properly interpret the output of complex models.
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Mathematical Modeling Using
Electronic Spreadsheets
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The technological breakthrough that enabled problem solvers to
develop their own math models was the electronic spreadsheet.
Static model: Figure 11.11 shows an operating budget in
column form. The columns are for: the budgeted expenses,
actual expenses, & variance, while rows are used for the
various expense items.
A spreadsheet is especially well-suited for use as a dynamic
model. The columns are excellent for the time periods, as
illustrated in Figure 11.12.
A spreadsheet also lends itself to playing the “what-if” game,
where the problem solver manipulates 1 or more variables to
see the effect on the outcome of the simulation.
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Figure 11.11 Spreadsheet Rows &
Columns Provide Format for
Columnar Report
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Figure 11.12 Spreadsheet Columns
are Excellent for Time Periods in
Dynamic Model
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Spreadsheet Model Interface
►
►
►
►
When using a spreadsheet as a mathematical model, the
user can enter data or make changes directly to the
spreadsheet cells, or by using a GUI
The pricing model described earlier in Figures 11.6-11.10
could have been developed using a spreadsheet, and had
the graphical user interface added
The interface could be created using a programming
language such as Visual Basic and would likely require an
information specialist to develop
A development approach would be for the user to develop
the spreadsheet and then have the interface added by an
information specialist.
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Artificial Intelligence
Artificial intelligence (AI) is the activity of providing
such machines as computers with the ability to display
behavior that would be regarded as intelligent if it were
observed in humans.
► AI is being applied in business in knowledge-based
systems, which use human knowledge to solve problems.
► The most popular type of knowledge-based system are
expert systems, which are computer programs that try to
represent the knowledge of human experts in the form of
heuristics.
► These heuristics allow an expert system to consult on how
to solve a problem: called a consultation - the user
consults the expert system for advice.
►
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Areas of AI
► Expert
system is a computer program that
attempts to represent the knowledge of human
experts in the form of heuristics.
► Heuristic is a rule of thumb or a rule of good
guessing.
► Consultation is the act of using an expert
system.
► Knowledge engineer has special expertise in
artificial intelligence; adept in obtaining knowledge
from the expert.
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Areas of AI (Cont’d)
► Neural
networks mimic the physiology of
the human brain.
► Genetic algorithms apply the “survival of
the fittest” process to enable problem
solvers to produce increasingly better
problem solutions.
► Intelligent agents are used to perform
repetitive computer-related tasks; i.e. data
mining.
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Expert System Configuration
► User
interface enables the manager to enter
instructions & information into the expert system
& to receive information from it.
► Knowledge base contains both facts that
describe the problem area & knowledge
representation techniques that describe how the
facts fit together in a logical manner.
► Problem domain is used to describe the problem
area.
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Expert System Configuration (Cont’d)
► Rule
specifies what to do in a given situation &
consists of two parts:
 A condition that may or may not be true, and
 An action to be taken when the condition is true.
► Inference
engine is the portion of the expert
system that performs reasoning by using the
contents of the knowledge base in a particular
sequence.
► Goal variable is assigning a value to the problem
solution.
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Expert System Configuration (Cont’d)
► Expert
system shell is a ready-made processor
that can be tailored to a specific problem domain
through the addition of the appropriate knowledge
base.
► Case-based reasoning (CBR) uses historical
data as the basis for identifying problems &
recommending solutions.
► Decision tree is a network-like structure that
enables the user to progress from the root
through the network of branches by answering
questions relating to the problem.
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Figure 11.13 Expert System Model
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Group Decision Support System
► Group
decision support system (GDSS) is “a
computer-based system that supports groups of
people engaged in a common task (or goal) & that
provides an interface to a shared environment”.
► Aliases group support system (GSS), computersupported cooperative work (CSCW),
computerized collaborative work support, &
electronic meeting system (EMS).
► Groupware the software used in these settings.
► Improved communications make possible improved
decisions.
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GDSS Environmental Settings
►
►
►
►
►
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Synchronous exchange when members meet at the
same time.
Asynchronous exchange when members meet at
different times.
Decision room is the setting for small groups of people
meeting face-to-face.
Facilitator is the person whose chief task is to keep the
discussion on track.
Parallel communication is when all participants enter
comments at the same time,&
Anonymity is when nobody is able to tell who entered a
particular comment; participants say what they REALLY
think without fear.
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Figure 11.14 Group Size & Location
Determine DSS Environmental
Settings
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GDSS Environmental Settings
(Cont’d)
►
►
Local area decision network when it is impossible for
small groups of people to meet face-to-face, the members
can interact by means of a local area network, or LAN.
Legislative session when the group is too large for a
decision room.
 Imposes certain constraints on communications such as equal
participation by each member is removed or less time is available.
►
Computer-mediated conference several virtual office
applications permit communication between large groups
with geographically dispersed members.
 Teleconferencing applications include computer conferencing, audio
conferencing, & videoconferencing.
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