Transcript Marketing channels营销渠道

A Framework for Marketing
Management
2001年教育部在《关于加强高等学校本科教学工作提
高教学质量的若干意见》中提出“按照‘教育面向现代化、
面向世界、面向未来’的要求，为适应经济全球化和科技
革命的挑战，本科教育要创造条件使用英语等外语进行公
共课和专业课教学”。“力争三年内，外语教学课程达到
所开设课程的5%--10%”。使用原版教材教学已成为高等
学校教学改革的一项重要内容。国内许多重点大学已经在
部分学科的课程中采用原版教材教学，作为普通高等院校，
我们 “市场营销”课程中采用菲利普 科特勒著的《营销
管理架构》（A Framework for Marketing Management）”
原版英文教材教学。
菲利普．科特勒教授长期执教于美国美国西北大学凯洛
格管理研究生院，该学院曾被《商业周刊》6次评为全美
最佳商学院。科特勒有关市场营销的著作早在90年代就被
教育部全国MBA教学指导委员会指定为市场营销课程的
首选参考书。《A Framework for marketing Management》
是科特勒营销管理教材的基础部分，是全美MBA经典教
材，被北京大学光华管理学院列为IMBA、MBA系列教材。
在“市场营销”课的多媒体课件中，对重要的定义、概
念，用中、英文双语表示，个别单词标注英语同义词或中
文，课堂授课基本使用英文。
根据授课内容，准备了相应的词汇表，这些词汇包括：
市场营销专业词汇；超出四级英语范围的词汇；属于四级
英语范围，但在本课程有不同含义且使用较频繁的词汇。
可以在我这里拷贝课件和词汇表。
My telephone number:
6960260 (H)
My e-mail address:
wtn.jnnc.com
If you have any question or need my assistance, call me or
email me.
Course Description
Aims
It is to give students an overview of marketing theories and a
framework of the marketing strategy, planning and management
including marketing mix （ 营 销 组 合 ):product, promotion,
distribution, pricing, and marketing communication strategies.
It is to help students to develop and strengthen the makings and
qualities necessary for a professional, knowledgeable and ethical
business person.
Objectives
1
2
3
4
5
To build an understanding of fundamental marketing concepts
To provide a framework within which marketing concepts can be
linked with other functional areas and disciplines
To combine theory with practice in marketing case studies to
better grasp the knowledge learned from this course.
To acquaint students with the English vocabularies in the course
and expressing marketing concepts in English.
To develop students' ability in applying marketing concepts to
analyze and solve marketing problems, and understanding the
international business environment.
Total Hours and Weekly Schedule
Total hours:
Weekly schedule:
Class time
Reading and study
Assignment
32 hours
2 hours
2--4 hours/chapter
2--4 hours
2 --4hours
Textbooks
A framework for Marketing Management, 1th Edition
By Philip Kotler, Prentice Hall, 2002
Reference Books
Marketing Management, 9th edition
Principles of Marketing, 10th edition
Chapter 1
Marketing in the Twenty-First
Century
21世纪的营销

What are the tasks of marketing?

What are the major concepts and tools of
marketing?

What orientations do companies exhibit in the
marketplace?

How are companies and marketers responding
to new challenges?
OBJECTIVES
Changing is occurring at an accelerating rate; today is not like
yesterday, and tomorrow will be different from today. Continuing today’s
strategy is risky; so is turning to a new strategy. Therefore the Successful
companies will have to heed (注意) three certainties:
l Global forces will continue to affect everyone’s business and
personal life----globalization 全球化
l Technology will continue to advance and amaze us---technological advance 技术革命
l There will be a continuing push toward deregulation of the
economic sector----deregulation 放松政府管制
1 Marketing Task 市场营销的任务
1.1 The scope of marketing 营销学的范围
Marketing people are involved in marketing 10 types of entities
十种本质:
1) Goods 商品---- Physical goods (物质商品) constitute the bulk of
more countries’ production and marketing effort. Each year, U.S.
companies alone market billion of canned and frozen food products,
millions of tons of steel, and other mainstays of a modern economy.
2) Services 服务----As economies advance, a growing proportion of
their activities are focused on the production of services. The U.S.
economy today consists of a 70-30 services-to-goods mix (当今美国经
济构成中服务和商品的比例为7：3). Services include the work of
airlines, hotel, maintenance, services provided by accountants, lawyers,
programmers, engineers, doctors etc.
3) Experiences 经历----By orchestrating goods and services （经过
协调各种商品和服务）, one can create, stage(策划) and market
experiences. Disney world’s Magic Kingdom is an experience （沃
尔特-迪斯尼世界的魔幻王国就是一种体验）.
4) Events 事件----Marketers promote time-based events （营销者常
常推广基于时间的活动）, such as Olympics, trade shows （贸易
展览会）, sports events, artistic performance etc.
5) Persons 个人---- Celebrity marketing has become a major business
（创造名人效应的营销已成为一种重要的商业活动）. Artists,
musicians, CEOs, physicians, financiers and other professional draw
（获得） help from celebrity marketers...
6) Places 地点----Cities, stages, regions, nations compete to attract
tourists, factories, company headquarters and new residents. Place
marketers include real estate agents, commercial bank, advertising and
public relations etc.
7) Properties 财产权---- Properties are intangible rights of ownership
of either real property（实物资产）-- (real estate 房地产)) or financial
property（金融资产）-- (stocks and bonds股票和债券). Properties are
bought and sold through the marketing efforts of real estate agents (for
real estate) and investment companies and banks (for securities—有价证
券)
8) Organizations 组织----Organizations actively work to build a strong,
favorable image（形象） in the mind of their publics （公众）. Philips,
the Dutch electronics company, advertises with the rag line, “Let’s Make
Things Better.”
9) Information (信息）---Among the marketers of information are
schools and universities, schools, publishers(出版商), makers of CDs
and Internet Web sites. The production, packaging and distribution of
information are one of the society’s major industries.
10) Ideas（观念）----Every market offering includes a basic idea. In
essence, products and services are platforms for delivering some ideas or
benefit to satisfy a core need (本质上，产品和服务都是传递以满足某
一核心需求的历年或利益的平台)。
1.2 The decisions that marketers make营销人员要做出的决策
How can we spot and choose the right market segment(s)? 如何识别和
选择正确的细分市场？
l How can we differentiate our offering? 如何区分我们的提供物？
l How should we respond to customers who press for a lower price?
如何应答要求低价的顾客？
l How can we compete against lower-cost, lower-price rivals? 如何与
低成本、低价格的竞争者竞争？
l How far can we go in customizing our offering for each customer?
如何为每一个顾客定制供应品？
l How can we grow our business? 如何发展我们的业务？
l How can we build stronger brands? 如何建设更强的品牌？
l How can we reduce cost of customer acquisition and keep customers
loyal? 如何减少顾客需求的成本并使顾客保持长期的忠诚？
l How can we tell which customers are more important? 如何辨认哪些
顾客是更重要的？
l How can we measure the payback from marketing communications?
如何衡量来自营销沟通的回报率？
l How can we improve sale-force productivity? 如何提高销售队伍的
生产率？
l How can we get other departments to be more customer-oriented? 如
何使公司的其他部门更注意顾客导向？
1.3 Marketing concepts and tools营销观念与工具
Marketing boasts a rich array of concepts and tools to help
marketers address the decisions they must make. We will start by
defining marketing and then describing its major concepts and tools.
1.4 Defining marketing
Marketing is a societal process by which individuals and groups
obtain what they need and want through creating, offering, and
exchanging products and services or value freely with others.
营销是个人和集体通过创造，提供出售，并同别人自由交换产
品和价值，以获得其所需、所欲之物的一种社会的过程
As a managerial definition, marketing has often been described as
“the art of selling product.” But Peter Drucker (彼德 德鲁克), a leading
management theorist, says that “the aim of selling is to make selling
superfluous(营销的目的就是使推销成为多余). The aim of marketing
is to know and understand the customer so well that the product or
service fits him and sells itself.
Coping with (从事) exchange processes—part of this definition—calls
for (要求) a considerable amount of work and skill. We see marketing
management as the art and science of applying core marketing concepts
to choose target markets and get, keep, and grow customer through
creating, delivering, and communicating superior customer value.
从事交换活动要求大量的工作和技巧。我们把看作一门运用营销
核心概念，通过创造、传递和沟通优质的顾客价值来选择目标市场，
获得、保持和增加顾客的艺术和科学。
Core Concepts of Marketing
Target Markets & Segmentation
Needs, Wants, and Demands
Product or Offering
Value and Satisfaction
Exchange and Transactions
Relationships and Networks
Marketing Channels
Supply Chain
Competition
Marketing Environment
1.6 Core marketing concepts 核心营销观念 （12 concepts）
(12 important marketing concepts)
1) Target marketing and segmentation 目标市场和细分
Every product or service contains features which a marketer must
translate into benefit. It is these benefits the customer perceives to be
available in a product and directly impacts the perceived ability to
meet the customer need(s) or want(s).
Marketers can rarely satisfy everyone in a market. Not everyone like
the same soft drink, automobile, college, and movie. Therefore marketers
start with market segmentation(市场细分). They identify and profile
distinct group of buyers who might prefer or require varying products
and marketing mixes(市场组合) . The firm then decide which segments
present the greatest opportunity.
For each chosen target buyers, the firm develops a market
offering(市场提供物) . The offering is positioned in the minds of the
target buyers as delivering some central benefit(s).
For example, Volvo (a Swedish Car maker 沃尔沃) develops its cars
for the target market of buyers for whom automobile safety is a major
concern. Volvo, therefore , positioned its car as the safest a customer can
buy.
Volvo: Target buyers—safety as the major concern--Offering-safest car
Simple Marketing System
Communication
Industry
(a collection
of sellers)
Goods/services
Money
Market
(a collection
of Buyers)
Markets and Prospects营销者和预期顾客
A marketer is someone who is seeking a response (attitude, a
purchase, a vote, a donation) from another party called the prospects.
营销者从被称为预期顾客的另一方寻求响应（注意、态度、购
买、选票、捐赠）。
So, a marketer is someone actively seeking one or more prospects
for an exchange of values. A prospect has been identified as willing
and able to engage in the exchange.
If two parties are seeking to sell something to each other, we call
them both marketers.
2) Needs, wants, and demands
需要、欲望和需求
l Needs 需要
Needs describe basic human requirements such as food, air, water,
clothing, and shelter. People also have strong needs for recreation,
education, and entertainment.需要描述了基本的人类要求, 如
食品、空气、水、衣服和住。人们还对休闲、教育和
娱乐有着强烈要求。
l Want 欲望
These needs become wants when they are directed to specific
objectives that might satisfy the need.当需要与可以满足这一需要的特
定物品联系时，需要变成了欲望。
An American needs food but wants hamburger, French fires, and a soft
drink. A person in China needs food but wants fried rice, egg soup, and
tea. Wants are shaped by one’s society.
l Demand 需求
Demands are wants for specific products backed by an ability to pay. 需
求是指有能力购买的某个具体产品的欲望。
Many people want to a Mercedes, only a few are able to and willing to
buy one. Companies must measure not only how many people want their
product, but also how many would actually be willing and be able to buy
it.
However, marketers do not create needs. Needs preexist marketers.
Marketers along with other societal influences, influence wants.
Marketers might promote the idea that Mercedes would satisfy a person’s
need for social status. They do not, however, create the need for social
status.
3) Products ，offering and brand 产品、供应品和品牌
Companies address needs by putting forth a value proposition, a set of
benefits they offer to customers to satisfy their needs. The intangible
value proposition is made physical by an offering, which can be a
combination of products, services, information and experience. Brand is
an offering from a known source公司提出价值主张来应对需要，这是
公司提供给消费者满足其需要的一系列利益。无形的价值主张通过
供应品表现为实物，着可以是产品、服务、信息和体验的组合。当
提供产品和服务的来源众所周知时，就形成了品牌。
A brand name such as McDonald’s carries many associations(联想) in
the minds of people: hamburgers, fun, children, fast food, golden arches.
These associations make up the brand image(形象). All companies strive
to build a strong, favorable brand image.
e.g, Compaq, Microsoft, Legend; AT&T, AOL, Amazon(亚马逊书店),
Motorola, Nokia; Panasonic, Sony, Philips, Hisense; GM, Ford, Chrysler,
Daimler Benz, BMW, Audi, Toyota, Nissan, Honda; GE, ABB, 3M, UT,
BASF, Bayer; Pepsi, Coca-Cola, McDonald’s, Kentucky Fried Chicken,
Tsingtao Beer; Nike, Reebok; Harvard, Stanford, MIT, Princeton,
Cambridge, Oxford, Peking Univ., SDAI.>SJZU
4) Value and satisfaction 价值和满意
lValue is a ration between what the customer gets and what he gives.
benefit
functional benefits + emotional benefits
value= ---- = --------------------------------------------------------------------cost
利益
Monetary cost + time cost + energy costs + psychic costs
功能利益 + 情感利益
价值 = ------- = -----------------------------------------------------成本
金钱成本 + 时间成本 + 体力成本+ 精力成本
5) Exchange and transaction 交换和交易
l Exchange 交换
Exchange, the core of marketing, involves obtaining a desired product
from someone by offering something in return. 交换就是通过提供某种
东西作为回报，从某人那里取得所想要东西的行为。
l Transaction 交易
Transaction involves at least two things of value, as agreed-upon
conditions, a time of agreement, and a place of agreement.交易是双方或
更多主体之间价值的交换，包括的要素有至少两个有价值的事物，
买卖双方同意的条件、协议时间和协议地点。
Note that transaction is different from transfer(转让). In transfer, A gives
a gift, a subsidy(补助金), or a charitable(仁慈的) contribution to B but
receives nothing tangible in return.
Marketing consists of actions undertaken to elicit(诱发)desired responses
from a target audience(目标受众) . To affect successful exchanges,
marketers analyze what each party expects from the transaction.
6）Relationships and networks 关系和网络
l Relationship marketing 关系营销
Relationship marketing aims to build long-term mutually satisfying
(win-win) regulations with key parties—customers, suppliers,
distributors—in order to earn and retain their long--term preference and
business. 关系营销是与关键成员（顾客、供应商、分销商）建立长
期满意关系的实践，目的是保持营销者长期的业绩和业务
Effective marketers accomplish (carry out) this by promising and
delivering high-quality products and services at fair prices to the other
parties over time. Relationship marketing builds strong economic,
technical and social ties among the parties. It cuts down on transaction
costs and time.
7）Marketing channels 营销渠道
To reach a target market, the marketer uses 3 kinds of marketing
channels:
l Communication channel(信息传播渠道) can deliver messages to
and receive messages from buyers.
Dialogue channel 双向交流渠道—e.g. e-mail, and toll-free numbers
Monologue channel单向渠道—e.g. ads
l Distribution channel(分销渠道)can display or deliver the physical
product or services to the buyers or users, which include warehouses,
transportation vehicles, and various trade channels such as distributors,
wholesalers and retailer. The marketers use distribution channels to
display or deliver the physical product or service(s) to the buyer or user.
l Selling channel(销售渠道)
The marketers use selling channels to effect transaction with potential
buyers. Selling channels include not only the distributors (分销商) and
retailers( 零 售 商 ) but also the bank and insurance companies that
facilitate transaction.
Marketers clearly face a design problem in choosing the best mix of
communication, distribution, and selling channels for their offering.
Communication channels
Distribution channels
MARKETING
CHANNELS
Selling channels
BANK
8）Supply chain
供应链
Supply chain describes a longer channel stretching from raw materials
to components to final products that are carried out for final buyers. 供应
连描述了从原材料、零部件到传递给最终买主的最终产品的一个更
长的延伸。
The supply chain for women’s purses starts with hides(皮革), tanning
(制革)operation, cutting operation, manufacturing, and the marketing
channels bringing
production to customers. The supply chain
represents a value delivery (价值让渡) system. .

Think of
examples of each type of competition:
Brand
Industry
competition
competition
COMPETITION
Form
competition
Generic
competition
9) Competition
竞争
l Brand competition 品牌竞争—a company sees its competitors as
other companies that offer similar products and services to the same
customers at similar prices. 公司把以类似价格提供类似产品和服务给
相同顾客的其他公司视为竞争者。
Volkswagen might see its major competitors as Toyota, Honda, and
other manufacturer of medium-price automobile, rather than Mercedes.
l Industry competition 行业竞争—a company sees its competitors
as all companies that make the same products or class of products.公司
把制造同样或同类产品的公司广义地视为竞争者。
Thus, Volkswagen would be competing against all other car
manufacturers.
l Form competition 形式竞争---a company sees its competitors as
all companies that supply the same products.公司把所有生产相同功能
的其他公司视为竞争者。
Volkswagen would see itself competing against manufacturers of
all vehicles, such as motorcycles, bicycles, and trucks.
l Generic competition 通常竞争--- a company sees its competitors
as all companies that compete for the same consumer dollars. 公司把所
有争取相同消费者支出的其他公司视为竞争者。
Volkswagen would see itself competing with companies that sell
major consumer durables, foreign vacations and new homes.
10）Marketing environment
l Task environment 工作环境
l Broad environment 大环境
n Demographic environment 人文环境
n Economic Environmental 经济环境
n Natural environment 自然环境
n Technological environment 技术环境
n Political-legal environment 政治-法制环境
n Social-cultural environment 社会-文化环境
Marketing mix is the set of marketing tools that the firm uses to pursue
its marketing objectives in the target market. 营销组合就是公司用来从
目标市场寻找其营销目标的一整套营销工具。
The sellers’ 4 Ps corresponds to the customers’ 4 Cs
4 Ps------------------------------ 4 Cs
Product 产品---------- customer solution顾客问题解决
Price 价格------------- customer cost cost 顾客的成本
Place 地点------------- convenience便利
Promotion 促销------- communication传播
THE FOUR PS
THE FOUR CS
Marketing
Mix
Product
Place
Customer
Solution
ConvenPromotion ience
Price
Customer
Cost
Communication
2 Company Orientations toward the Marketplace 公司对
待市场的导向
There are five concepts under which organizations conduct marketing
activities: production concept, product concepts, selling concept,
marketing concept and societal marketing concept.
Company Orientations Towards
the Marketplace
Production Concept
Consumers prefer products that are
widely available and inexpensive
Product Concept
Consumers favor products that
offer the most quality, performance,
or innovative features
Selling Concept
Consumers will buy products only if
the company aggressively
promotes/sells these products
Marketing
MarketingConcept
Concept
Focuses on needs/ wants of target
markets & delivering value
better than competitors
2.1
Production concept 生产观念
Production concept, one of the oldest in business, holds that
consumers prefer products that are widely available and inexpensive.
生产观念认为，消费者喜欢那些可以随处得到的、价格低廉的产
品。
Managers of production-oriented (生产导向型) business concentrate
on (集中, 全神贯注于) achieving high production efficiency, low cost,
and mass distribution. This orientation makes sense ( 有 意 义 ) in
developing countries, where consumers are more interested in obtaining
the product than in its features. It is also used when a company wants to
expand the market.
Texas Instrument (美国的得克萨斯仪器公司）is a leading exponent
of this concept. It concentrates on building production volume and
upgrading technology in order to bring costs down, leading to lower
prices and expansion of the market. This orientation has also been a key
strategy of many Japanese companies.
2.2 Product concept 产品观念
Product concept holds that consumers favor those products that
offer most quality, performance, or innovative features.
产品观念认为，消费者最喜欢高质量、多功能和具有某些创新特
色的产品。
Managers in these organizations focus on making superior products
and improving them over time, assuming that buyers can appraise quality
and performance.
Product-oriented (产品导向） companies often design their products
with little or no customer input (参与), trusting that their engineers can
design exceptional products (出众的产品). A General Motor executive
(经理）said years ago: “How can the public know what kind of car
they want until they see what is available.”(在我们的设计没有出来以
前，公众怎么会知道他们需要什么样的汽车呢？). GM today asks
what they value in a car and includes marketing people in the very
beginning stages of design.
2.3 Selling concept 推销观念
Selling concept holds that consumers and businesses, if left alone,
will ordinarily not buy enough of the organization’s products. The
organization must, therefore, undertake an aggressive selling and
promotion effort.
推销观念认为，如果让消费者和企业自行抉择，他们不会足量购
买某一组织的产品。因此，该组织必须主动推销和积极促销。
This concept assumes that consumers typically show buying inertia or
resistance and must be coaxed into(劝诱) buying, so the company has a
battery of (一系列) selling and promotion tools to stimulate(诱导)
buying.
The selling concept is practiced most aggressively with unsought goods
(非渴望商品)----goods that buyers normally do not think of buying,
such as insurance. The selling concept is also practiced in the nonprofit
area by fund-raisers(资金筹措者), college administration offices, and
political parties.
Most firms practice the selling concept when they have overcapacity
(过剩的生产能力). Their aim is to sell what they make rather than make
what the market wants. In modern industrial economies, productive
capacity has been built up to a point where most markets are buyer
markets (the buyer are dominant-支配的) and seller have to scramble for
(争夺)customers. Prospects are bombarded (围攻)with sales messages.
As a result, the public often identifies marketing with hard selling (强力
推销) and advertising. But marketing based on hard selling carries high
risks. It assumes that customers who are coaxed into buying it will like it;
and if they do not, whey would not bad-mouth(说坏话) it or complain to
consumer organization and will forget their disappointment and buy it
again. These are indefensible(站不住脚的) assumptions. In fact, one
study shoed that dissatisfied customers may bad-mouth the product to 10
or more acquaintances(熟人); bad news travels fast, something marketers
that use hard selling should bear in mind.
2.4 Marketing concept 营销观念
Marketing concept holds that the key to achieving
organizational goals consist of the company being more effective
than its competitors in creating, delivering, and communicating
customer value to its chosen target market.
营销观念认为，实现组织诸目的的关键在于正确确定目标市场
的需要和欲望，并且比竞争对手更有效、更有利的传送目标市场所
期望满足的东西。
The marking concept has been expressed in many ways:
“Meeting needs profitably.”
“Find wants and fill them.”
“Love the customer, not the product.”
“Have it your way.” (Burger King)
“You’re the boss.” (United Airline)
“Putting people first.” (British Airline)
“Partners for profit.” (Milliken $ Company)
A Harvard professor makes a contrast(对比) between the selling and
marketing concepts: “Selling focus on the needs of the seller; marketing
on the needs of the buyer. Selling is preoccupied with the seller’s need to
convert this product into cash; marketing with the idea of satisfying the
needs of the customer by means of the product and the whole cluster of
things( 所 有 事 情 ) associated with creating, delivering and finally
consuming it.”
The marketing concept rests on four pillars: target market, customer
needs, integrated marketing, and profitability. The selling concept takes
an inside-out perspective(推销观念采取从里到外的顺序). It starts with
the factory, focus on existing products, and calls for heavy selling and
promoting to produce profitable sales. The marketing concept takes an
outside-in perspective. It starts with a well-defined market, focuses on
customer needs, coordinates activities that affect customers, and
produces profits by satisfying customers.
(a) The selling concept
Factory
Factory
Starting
point
Existing
Existing
products
products
Focus
Selling
Sellingand
and Profits
Profitsthrough
through
promotion
promotion sales
salesvolume
volume
Means
Ends
Profits through
Customer
Integrated
CONTRASTS
BETWEEN
SELLING
customer
Market
needs
marketing
AND MARKETING CONCEPTS satisfaction
(b) The marketing concept
营销观念的4个支柱：
1) Target market 目标市场
2) Customer needs 顾客需要
3) Integrated marketing 整合营销
4) Profitability 赢利能力
MARKETING CONCEPT
Profitability
Integrated marketing
Customer needs
Target market
The Marketing Concept stands on four
pillars:
1) Target market 目标市场
Companies do best when they choose their target market(s) carefully
and prepare tailored (适当的) marketing programs.
2) Customer needs 顾客需要
A company can carefully define its target market yet fail to correctly
understand the customer’s needs. Understanding customer needs and
wants is not always simple. Some customers have needs of which they
are not fully conscious; some cannot articulate (清晰地说明) these needs
or use words that require some interpretation.
Sony exemplifies (例证) a creative market because it has introduced
many successful new products that customer never asked for or even
thought were possible: Walkmans, VCRs(录象机), and so on. Sony goes
beyond customer-led marketing: it is a market-driving firm, not just a
market-driven firm (索尼是一个引导市场的公司，而不仅仅是市场驱
动的公司)..
3) Integrated marketing 整合营销
Integrated marketing takes place on two levels: First, the various
market functions—sales force, advertising, customer service, product
management, marketing research (营销调研)—must work together. All
of these functions must be coordinated from the customers’ point of
view. Second, marketing must be included by other departments. Xerox,
for example, goes so far as to include in every job to explain how each
job affects the customer. Xerox factory managers know that visits to the
factory can help sell to a potential customer if the factory is clean and
efficient. Xerox accountants know that customer attitudes are affected by
Xerox’s billing accuracy.
To foster(激励) teamwork among all departments, the company must
carry out internal marketing(内部营销) as well as external marketing.
External marketing is marketing directed at people outside the company.
Internal marketing is the task of hiring, training, and motivating able
employees who want to serve customers well. In fact, internal marketing
must precede external marketing. It makes no sense to promise excellent
service before the company’s staff is ready to provide it.
4) Profitability 赢利能力
The ultimate（最终的）purpose of the marketing concept is to help
organization achieve their objectives. In the case of private firms, the
major objective is profit; in the case of non-profit and public
organizations, it is surviving and attracting enough funds to perform
useful work.
How many companies actually practice the marketing concept?
Unfortunately, too few. Only a handful of companies stand out as master
marketers: Procter & Gamble, Disney, Wal-Mart, McDonald’s, Marriott
Hotels(万豪酒店), American Airlines, and several Japanese (Sony,
Toyota, Canon) and European companies (IKEA, Nokia, ABB).
These companies focus on the customer and are organized to respond
effectively to changing customer needs. they all have well-staffed (素质
良好的) marketing departments, and all of their other departments—
manufacturing, finance, research and development, personnel,
purchasing---accept the customer as king. Several scholars have found
that by embracing (采用) the marketing concept, companies can achieve
superior performance(业绩).
Despite the benefits, firms face three hurdles in converting to a
marketing orientation: organized resistance, slow learning and fast
forgetting. Some company departments (often manufacturing, finance,
and research and development) believe a strong marketing function
threatens their power in organization. Despite efforts by management,
learning comes slow. Resistance (阻力) is particularly strong in industry
(行业) in which marketing is being introduced for the first time—for
instance, colleges and government agencies..
2.5 Societal marketing concept 社会营销观念
Some have questioned whether the marketing concept is an
appropriate philosophy in an age of environmental deterioration,
resource shortages, explosive population growth, world hunger and
poverty, and neglected social services. They think the marketing concept
sidesteps (回避) the potential conflict among consumer wants, consumer
interests and long-run societal welfare.
The societal marketing concept calls upon marketers to build social
and ethical(与伦理有关) consideration into their marketing practices.
They see it as affording an opportunity for companies to enhance their
corporate reputation, raise brand awareness, increase customer loyalty,
build sales, and increase press coverage(加强新闻舆论影响).
Social marketing concept holds that the organization’s task is to
determine the needs, wants, and interests of target market and to deliver
the desired satisfactions more effectively and efficiently than competitors
in a way that preserves or enhances the customer’s and the society’s
well-being.
社会营销观念认为，组织的任务是确定诸目标市场的需要、欲望
和利益，并以保护或提高消费者及社会福利的方式，比竞争者更有
效、更有利地提供目标市场所期待的满足。
CHAPTER 3
Building Customer Satisfaction,
Value, and Retention
建立顾客满意、价值和关系
 Define
value and satisfaction and
understand how to deliver them.
 Describe the nature of highperformance businesses.
 Explain how to attract and retain
customers.
 Understand ways of improving
customer profitability.
 Define total quality management.
CHAPTER 3 OBJECTIVES
1 Defining Customer Value and Satisfaction 定义顾客价
值和满意
1.1
Customer value 顾客价值
Customer perceived value is the difference between total customer
value and total customer cost. Total customer value is the bundle of
benefits that customers expect from a given product or service. Total
customer cost is the bundle of cost that customer expect to incur in
evaluating, obtaining, using, and disposing of the product or service.
顾客感知价值是指总顾客价值与总顾客成本之差。顾客总价值
就是顾客从某一特定产品或服务中获得的一系列利益；而总顾客
成本是在评估、获得和使用和处置该产品或服务时而引起的顾客
预计费用。

Customers estimate which offer will deliver the
most value.

They then form an expectation of value and act
upon it.

Customer delivered value = total customer value
minus total customer cost.
CUSTOMER VALUE
Determinants of Customer
Delivered Value
Image value
Personnel value
Services value
Total
customer
value
Product value
Customer
delivered
value
Monetary cost
Time cost
Energy cost
Psychic cost
Total
customer
cost
As an example, suppose the buyer for a residential construction
company wants to buy a tractor from either Caterpillar (卡特皮勒--the
largest engineering machinery supplier of America) or Komatsu(小松-the largest engineering machinery supplier of Japan). After evaluating the
two tractors, he decides that Caterpillar has a higher product value, based
on perceived (感知的) reliability(可靠性）, durability, performance（性
能）, and resale value. He also decides that Caterpillar’s personnel are
more knowledgeable, and perceives that the company will provide better
services, such as maintenance（维护保养）. Finally, he places higher
value on Caterpillar’s corporate image（形象）. He adds all of the
values from these four sources—product, service, personnel, and
image—and perceives Caterpillar as offering more total customer value.
The buyer also examines his total cost of transacting（交易） with
Caterpillar versus Komatsu. In addition to the monetary cost, the total
customer cost includes the buyer’s time, energy, and psychic (精力的)
cost. Then the buyer compares Caterpillar’s total cost to its customer
value. In the end, the buyer will buy from the company that he perceives
is offering the highest delivered value.
1.2
Customer satisfaction 顾客满意
Satisfaction is a person’s feeling of pleasure or disappointment
resulting from comparing a product’s perceived performance (or
outcome) in relation to his or her expectations.
满意是指一个人通过对一种产品的可感知效果（或结果）与他或
她的期望值相比较后，所形成的愉悦或失望的感觉状态。
As this definition makes clear, satisfaction is a function of perceived
performance( 可 感 知 效 果 ) and expectations ( 期 望 值 ). If the
performance falls short of expectations, the customer is disappointed. If
performance matches expectations, the customer is satisfied; if it exceeds
expectations, the customer is highly satisfied or delighted.
Many companies aim for high customer satisfaction, which creates an
emotional bond with the brand, not just a rational (理性的) preference.
The result is high customer loyalty. The most successful companies go a
step further, aiming for total customer satisfaction. Xerox’s（施乐）
senior management believes that a very satisfied or delighted customer is
worth 10 times as much to the company as a satisfied customer. A very
satisfied customer is likely to stay with Xerox many more years and buy
more than a satisfied customer will. This is why Xerox guarantees “total
satisfaction”( 全 面 顾 客 满 意 ) and will replace, at its expense, any
dissatisfied customer’s equipment within three years after purchase. And
one of Honda’s ads says: “one reason our customers are so satisfied is
that we are not (satisfied).”
2 Delivering Customer Value and Satisfaction 让 渡 顾 客
价值和满意
Given the importance of customer value and satisfaction, what
does it take to produce and deliver them? To answer this question, we
need to discuss the concept of a value chain and value-delivery
system.
2.1 Value chain 价值链
Value chain----used as a tool for identifying ways to create more
value. Every firm is a collection of activities that are performed to
design, produce, market, deliver, and support its products.
价值链，用作一种工具，用以识别创造更多的顾客价值的各种
途径。每一个公司集合了设计、生产、销售、送货和支持产品等
采取的一系列活动。
2.2 Value delivery network 价值让渡网络
To be successful, the firm also needs to look for competitive
advantages beyond its own operations, into the value chains of its
suppliers, distributors, and customers. Many companies today have
partnered with specific suppliers and distributors to create a superior
value-delivery network.
One example of value-delivery network is the one that connects
Levis Strauss & Company, the famous maker of blue jeans, with its
suppliers and distributors, including Sears. Every night, Levi’s receives
electronic notification of the sizes and styles of its blue jeans sold
through Sears. Levi’s then electronically orders more fabric(布料) for
next-day delivery from Miliken, its fabric supplier. Miliken, in turn,
orders more fiber (纤维) from DuPont, its fiber supplier. In this quick
response system, the goods are pulled by demand rather than pushed by
supply( 商 品 是 需 求 拉 动 的 ， 而 不 是 供 应 推 动 的 ). Thus, Levi’s
performance depends upon the quality of its marketing network, not just
its own operations.
Levi Strauss’
Value-Delivery Network
Order
Du Pont
(Fibers)
Order
Milliken
(Fabric)
Delivery
Order
Levi’s
(Apparel)
Delivery
Order
Sears
(Retail)
Delivery
Customer
Delivery
Competition is between networks,
not companies. The winner is
the company with the better
network.
3 Attracting and Retaining Customers 吸引和维系顾客
In addition to improving relations with supply-chain partners, many
companies are developing stronger bonds and loyalty with their ultimate
customers. Today’s customers are smarter, more price conscious（更具
有价格意识）, more demanding, less forgiving（较少的宽容心）, and
approached by more competitors with equal or better offers. The
challenge now is not to produce satisfied customers, but to produce loyal
customers.
3.1 Attracting customers 吸引顾客
Companies seeking to grow their sales and profits must spend
considerable time and resources searching for new customers. Too many
companies suffer from high customer churn (搅动) —they gain new
customers only to lose many of them. Today companies must pay closer
attention to their customer defection rate(顾客背叛率). Cellular carrier
（蜂窝电话）, for instance, loses 25 percent of their subscribers(订户)
each year at a cost of estimated at $2 billion to $4 billion.
3.2 The need for customer retention 维系顾客的需要
The key to customer retention is customer satisfaction. A highly
satisfied customer stays loyal longer, buys more, talks favorably about
the company and its products, pays less attention to competitors, is less
price-sensitive, offers product or service ideas, and costs less to serve
than new customers because transactions are routinized. (使惯例化, 使
成常规) .
Companies can strengthen customer retention in two ways. One way is
to erect high switching barriers (转换壁垒). The better approach is to
deliver high customer satisfaction. This makes it harder for competitors
to overcome switching barriers by simply offering lower prices or
switching inducements (诱导). The task of creating strong customer
loyalty is called relationship marketing.
Some companies think they are getting a sense of customer
satisfaction by tallying (计算) customer complaints. However, 95% of
dissatisfied customers do not complain; many just stop buying. The best
thing a firm can do is to make it easy for customers to complain via tollfree phone numbers, suggestion forms, and e-mail---and then listen. 3M,
for example, encourages customers to submit suggestions, inquiries, and
complaints. The company says that over two thirds of its productimprovement ideas come from listening to customer complaints.
Listening is not enough, however. The company must respond quickly
and constructively to the complaints. As Albertand and Zemk observe:
“The company must respond quickly and constructively to the
complaints. Of the customers who register a complaint, between 54 and
70% will buy again if their complaint is resolved (解决). The figure goes
up to staggering (surprising) 95% if the customer feels the complaint was
resolved quickly. And customer whose complaints were satisfactorily
resolved tell an average of five people about the good treatment they
received.”
3.4 Relationship marketing: The key 关系营销：关键
To understand customer relationship marketing, we must review the
process involved in attracting and keeping customers.
Customer development process 顾客发展过程
The starting point is suspects( 猜 想 顾 客 ), everyone who might
conceivably(令人信服地)buy the product or service. The company
examines suspects to determine who are its most likely prospects (预期
顾客)—the people who have a strong potential interests and ability to
pay for the product. Disqualified prospects (不合格预期顾客) are those.
the company rejects because they have poor credit or would be
unprofitable The company hopes to convert many qualified customers
(合格预期顾客) into first-time customer (首次购买顾客), and then to
convert those qualified first-time customers into repeat customer (重复
购买顾客). Once the company acts to convert repeat customers into
clients(客户)—people whom the company treats very specially—the
next challenge is to turn clients into members（成员），by starting a
membership program(成员计划方案) offering benefits to customers
who join. The goal here is turn members into advocates (拥护者) who
recommend the company and its offerings to others. The ultimate
challenge is to turn advocates into partners(合伙人), where the customer
and the company work together actively.
Clients
Suspects
Repeat
customers
Prospects
Advocates
First-time
customers
Partners
CUSTOMER DEVELOPMENT
Inactive or
Disqualified
prospects
ex-customers
Chapter 5
Understanding Markets,
Market Demand, and the
Marketing Environment 理解
市场、市场需求和市场环境
Chapter 5 Objectives
 Identify the components of a marketing information
system.
 Describe how marketers can improve marketing
decisions through intelligence systems, marketing
research, and marketing decision support systems.
 Determine how demand can be accurately measured
and forecasted.
 Explain key demographic, economic, natural,
technological, political, and cultural developments in
a macroenvironment.
1 Supporting Marketing Decision with Information,
Intelligence, and Research
用信息、情报和市场调研支
持影销决策
The marketing environment is changing at an accelerating rate, and
the need for real-time market information(对市场实时信息需要) is
greater than at any time the past. Companies are expanding from local to
national to global marketing; consumers are gaining buying power and
becoming more selective in their choices; and sellers are shifting from
price to nonprice(非价格) competition. At the same time,information
technologies are emerging: powerful computers, DVD players, the
Internet, and more . Yet many companies fail to see change as
opportunity and ignore or resist changes until it is too late. Their
strategies, structures, systems, and organizational culture grow
increasingly obsolete and dysfunctional as the environment changes.
Corporation as mighty (强大的) as General Motor, IBM, and Sears
passed through difficult times because they ignored macroenvironmental changes for too long. The major responsibility for
identifying marketplace changes falls to marketers. More than More than
any other group in the company, they must be the trend trackers (追踪者)
and opportunity seekers (搜索者).
Marketing information system (MIS)营销信息系统---consists of
people, equipment, and procedures that gather, sort, analyze, evaluate,
and distribute needed, timely, and accurate information to marketing
decision makers.
营销信息系统由人、设备和程序组成，它为营销决策者收集、挑
选、分析、评估和分配重要的、及时的和准确的信息。
This information is developed through internal company records（内
部报告）, marketing intelligence(营销情报), marketing research(市场
调研), and marketing decision support analysis（营销决策支持分析）.
1.1
Marketing intelligence system营销情报系统
Marketing intelligence system is a set of procedures and sources used
by managers to obtain everyday information about developments in the
marketing environment.
营销情报系统是使公司经理获得日常的关于营销环境发展的恰当
信息的一整套程序和来源。
Improving a Marketing Intelligence
System
Train and motivate sales force for development
Have distributors and retailers pass information
Purchase and study competitors’ products
Set up customer advisory panel
Purchase information from outside suppliers
Establish marketing information center
1.2 Marketing research 市场调研
Marketing research 市场调研
We define marketing research as the systematic design, collection,
analysis, and reporting of data and findings that are relevant to a specific
marketing situation facing the company.
市场调研是系统地设计、收集、分析和提出数据资料以及提出跟
公司所面临的特定的营销状况有关的调查研究结果
Most companies can obtain marketing research in a number of ways.
Most large companies have their own marketing research departments.
At Procter & Gamble, one marketing research group I in charge of
overall company advertising research, while another is in charge of
marketing testing. Each group’s staff consists of marketing research
managers, supporting specialists (survey designers, statisticians,
behavioral scientists), and in-house field representatives who conduct
and supervise(监督) interviewing. Each year P&G contacts over 1
million people in connection with about 1,000 research projects.
1.3 The Marketing Research Process
Effective marketing research involves the five steps:
Define
problem
and
research
objectives
Develop
research
plan
Present
findings
Collect
information
Analyze
information
Step 1: Defining the problem and research objectives 步骤1：确定问
题和调研目标
In the first step of the marketing research process, management must
carefully define the problem to be studied.
Step 2: Develop the research plan 步骤2：制定调研计划
The second step of the marketing research process is to design an
efficient, affordable research plan. This step calls for decisions on the
data source, research approaches, research instruments, sampling plan,
and contact methods.
l Research approaches 调研方法
n Observation research 观察法----fresh data can be gathered by
observing the relevant actors and settings. The American Airlines
researchers might meander(漫步) around the airport and airline
offices to hear travelers talk about different carriers, or they can
fly on American and competitor’s planes to observe in-flight
services.
n Focus-group research 焦点（小组）访谈法
n Survey research 调查法
n Behavioral data 行为数据
n Experimental research 实验法
Research Approaches
Observational
Focus-group
Behavioral
Survey
Experimental
l Research instrument调研工具
n Closed-end questions封闭式问题
n Open-end questions 开放式问题
l Sampling plan 抽样计划
n Sampling unit 抽样单位—Who is to be surveyed?
n Sampling size 抽样大小—How many people should
be surveyed?
n Sampling procedure 抽 样 程 序 —How should the
respondents be chosen?
Sampling Plan
After deciding on the research approach
and instruments, the researcher must
design a sampling plan.
Sampling procedure
Sampling
unit
Sampling Plan
Sample size
l Contact methods 接触方式
n Mail questionnaire 邮寄调查表
n Telephone 电话
n Personal interviewing 人员面谈访问
n On-line interviewing 在线访问
Step 3: Collect information 步骤3： 收集信息
In marketing research, data collection is generally the most
expensive and the most prone( 易 于 … 的 ) to error. Four major
problems may arise:
1) Respondents(被调查人) who are not at home must be recontacted
or replaced;
2) Some respondents will not cooperate;
3) Some will give biased (有偏见的) or dishonest answers;
4) Some interviews will be biased or dishonest.
Step 4: Analyze the information 步骤4：分析信息
The forth step in the marketing research process is to extract findings
from the collected data. The researcher first tabulates(列表) the data and
then applies various statistical(统计学的)techniques and decision model
to analyze the results.
Step 5: Present the findings 步骤5：陈述研究发现
In the last step of the marketing research process, the researcher
presents the major findings that are relevant to the key decisions facing
management.
1.4 Marketing decision support system
营销决策支持系统
A marketing decision support system is a coordinated collection of
date, systems, tools, and techniques with supporting software and
hardware by which an organization gathers and interprets information
from business and the environment and turns it into a basis for
marketing action.
营销决策支持系统是一个组织，它通过软件与硬件支持，协调
数据收集、系统、工具和技术，解释企业内部和外部环境的有
关信息，并把它转化为营销活动的基础。
2 Identifying and Responding to Macroenvironmental
Trend and Forces. 对宏观环境趋势和因素的辨认和反应
Marketers find many opportunities by identifying trends in the
macroenvirment. Trend is a direction or sequence of events that have
some momentum and durability.(趋势是具有某些势头和持久性的
事件)。Within the rapid changing global picture, the firm must monitor
six major forces: demographic(人文的), economic(经济的), natural(自
然的), technological(技术的), political-legal(政治-法律的), and socialcultural(社会-文化的).
Although these forces will be described separately, marketers must pay
attention to their interactions, because these set the stage for new
opportunities as well as threats. For example, population growth
(demographic environment) leads to resource depletion( 贫 化 ) and
pollution (natural environment), which leads consumers to call for more
laws (political-legal). The restrictions stimulate new technological
solutions and products (technology); if the solution and products are
affordable?(供应得起的economic forces); they may actually change
attitudes and behavior (social-cultural).
2.1 Demographic environment 人文环境
1) Worldwide population growth 世界人口增长
The world population totaled 5.4 billion in 1991, by 1999 it topped 6
billion, and estimated 8 billion by 2025. The less developed regions of
the world currently account for 76% of the world population and are
growing at 2% per year, whereas the population in the most developed
countries is growing at only 0.6% per year. Feeding, clothing, and
educating children while also providing a rising standard of living is
nearly impossible in the less developed areas. The explosive world
population growth has major implications for business. For example, the
Chinese government limits families to one child per family. Toy
marketers, in particular, see that these “little emperors” (小皇帝) are
showered(大量地给与) with everything from candy to computers by
parents, grandparents, aunts and uncles. This trend has encouraged
Japan’s Bandai Company(班德尔公司), Denmark’s Lego Group(莱哥集
团), and Mattel (马特尔公司) to enter the Chinese market.
2) Population age mix 人口年龄结构
A population can be subdivided into six age groups: preschool,
school-age, teens, young adults age 25—40, middle-age adults age
40—65, and older adults age 65 and up.
3) A better-educated and more white collar population更多
的受教育和更多的白领人口
The rising number of educated people(36% of the US population is
college-educated) will increase the demand for quality products, books,
magazines, travel, personal computers and Internet services. It
suggests a decline in television viewing because college-educated
consumers watch less TV than population at large. The workforce also
is becoming more white collar. These trends have continued into the
new millennium.
4) Household patterns 家庭类型
5) Geographical shifts in population 人口居住区域的变化
Location makes a difference in goods and service preferences.
People who live in large cities such as New York, Chicago and San
Francisco need more expensive furs, perfumes, luggage and work of
art. These cities also support the opera, ballet and other forms of
culture. Americans living in the suburbs have more casual lives. They
buy more vans, home workshop equipment, lawn and gardening tools.
There are also regional differences:
For example, people in Seattle buy more toothbrushes than other cities;
people in Salt Lake City eat more candy bars; people from New Orleans
use more ketchup(调味蕃茄酱); and people in Miami drink more prune
juice(李子汁). Besides, there is great migratory movements between and
within countries. Americans, for instance, are a mobile people with about
12 million U.S. households moving each year. Over the past two decades,
the U.S.’s population has shifted toward the Sunbelt（阳光地带）states.
The West and South have grown while the Midwest and Northeast states
have lost population. The movement to the Sunbelt states has lessened
the demand for warm clothing and home heating equipment and
increased the demand for air conditioning.
2.2 Economic environment 经济环境
Successful companies realize that markets require purchasing
power as well as people. The available purchasing power in an
economy depends on current income, prices, savings debt, and credit
availability. For this reason, marketers must track the trends in income
and consumer spending patterns.
Marketers should pay attention to income distribution as well as
average income. At the top are upper class consumers, whose spending
patterns are not affected by current economic events and are the major
market for luxury goods. There is a comfortable middle class that is
somewhat careful about its spending but can still afford the good life
some of the time. The working class must stick close to the basic food,
clothing and shelter, and must try hard to save. Finally, the underclass
(persons on welfare and many retired people) must count their pennies
when making even the most basic purchase.
2.3
Natural environment
自然环境
The deterioration of the natural environment is a major global
concern. In many cities, air and water pollution have reached dangerous
levels. In Western Europe, “green” parties have pressed for public action
to reduce industrial pollution. Legislation(立法) protecting the natural
environment has hit certain industries very hard. Steel companies have to
invest in expensive pollution-control equipment and earth-friendly(对地
球无害的) fuels, while automakers have to install expensive emission（
排放）controls in their vehicles. In general, marketers need to monitor
these four trends closely: the shortage of materials, the increased cost of
energy, increased pollution levels, and the changing role of government.
l Shortage of raw materials 原料短缺
The earth’s raw materials consist of the infinite (无限资源), the
finite renewable(有限可再生资源), and the finite nonrenewable (有限
不可再生资源). Infinite resources, such as air and water, pose (引起)
no immediate problem, although some groups see a long-rum danger.
Finite renewable resources, such as forests and food, must be used
wisely. Forestry companies are required to reforest timberland. Finite
nonrenewable resources such as oil, coal, copper, silver will pose serious
problems as the point of depletion approaches. Firms that make products
with these resources face substantial cost increase that they may be
unable to pass along (转移) to customers.
l Increased energy costs 能源成本的增加
One finite nonrenewable resource, oil, has created serious problems
for the world economy. Oil prices shot up(达到) from &2.23 a barrel in
1972 to $34 a barrel in 1982, creating a frantic(疯狂的)search for
practical alternative(替代) energy form. Coal became popular again, and
companies searched for practical means to harness (利用) solar, nuclear,
wind, and other forms of energy.
l Increased pollution levels 污染程度的增加
Research has shown that about 42% of US customers are willing to
pay higher prices for “green” products. There is a large market for
pollution-control solutions such as recycling centers and landfill systems.
Smart companies are initiating environment-friendly moves to show their
concern. For instance, 3M’s Pollution Prevention Pays program
substantially reduces pollution and cost. AT&T uses a special software
package to choose the least harmful materials, cut hazardous (危害的)
waste, reduce energy use, and improve product recycling(重复利用) in
its operations. McDonald’s and Burger King eliminated their polystyrene
cartons(苯乙烯盒) and now use smaller, recyclable(可回收的) paper
wrappings(包装) and paper napkins(纸巾).
l Changing role of government 政府职能的变化
The German government is vigorous in its pursuit of environmental
quality, partly because of the strong green movement in Germany and
partly because of the ecological devastation (生态破坏) in the former
East Germany. Many nations are doing little about pollution because they
lack the funds or the political will.
Changing Role
of Government
Higher Pollution
Levels
Natural
Environment
Increased Costs
of Energy
Shortage of
Raw Materials
2.4 Technological environment 技术环境
One of the most dramatic forces shaping people’s lives is technology.
However, every new technology is a force for “creative destruction.”(创
造性破坏) For instance, autos hurt the railroads, and television hurts the
newspapers. Instead of moving into the new technologies, many old
industries fought (压制) or ignored (轻视) them, and their businesses
declined (衰落).
l Accelerating pace of technological change
Many of today’s common products, such as personal computers
and fax machines, were not available 40 year ago. The time lag(滞后
) between new ideas and their successful implementation is
decreasing rapidly, and the time between introduction and peak
production is much shorter. These technological changes are
changing marketers and needs. For instance, technology enabling
people to telecommute(在家通计算机终端远距离工作)----work at
home instead of traveling to offices----may reduce auto pollution,
bring families closer, and create more home centered activities,
affecting shopping behaviors as well as marketing performance.
l Unlimited opportunities for innovation 无限的革新机会
Scientists today are working on a starling(惊人的) range of new
technologies (such as biotechnology, solid-state electronics, robotics)
that will revolutionize products and production processes. Companies are
already harnessing(利用) the power of virtual reality(虚拟现实), the
combination of technologies that allows users to experience three
dimensional, computer-generated environments through sound, sight,
and touch. Virtual reality has helped firms to gather consumer reactions
to new car designs, kitchen layout, and other potential offerings.
l Varying R&D budgets 变化着的研究与开发预算
Although the United States leads the world R&D expenditures, most is
earmarked(指定用途) for defense (nearly 60% of $74 Billion). There is a
need to transfer more of this money into other types of research.
l Increased regulation of technological change 增长着的技术革新
规定
As products become more complex, the public needs to be assured of
their safety. In the United States, the Federal Food and Drug
Administration must approve all drugs before they can be sold. Safety
and health regulations have also increased in the areas of food,
automobiles, clothing, electrical appliances, and construction. Marketers
must be aware of these regulations when proposing, developing, and
launching(投放市场) new products.
Accelerating Pace
of Change
Unlimited Opportunities
for Innovation
Issues in the Technological
Environment
Varying
R & D Budgets
Increased
Regulation
2.5 Political—legal environment
政治—法律环境
Marketing decisions are strongly affected by developments in the
political and legal environments, which are composed of laws ，
government, and pressure groups that influence and limit organizations
and individuals.
l Legislation regulating business 对商业进行管理的立法
Business legislation has three main purposes: to protect firms from
unfair competition, to protect consumers from unfair business practices,
and to protect society from unbridled(放纵的) business behavior. For
example, European Community has enacted laws that cover competitive
behaviors, product standards, product liability, and commercial
transactions. The US has laws covering issues such as competition,
product safety and liability, fair trade, and packaging and labeling.
2.6 Social—cultural environment 社会—文化环境
Society shapes our beliefs, values and norms. People absorb, almost
unconsciously, a worldview that defines their relationship to themselves,
others, organizations, society, nature, and the universe.
l Views of themselves 人们对自己的看法
People vary in their relative emphasis on self-gratification(满意).
Today, people are more conservative: they cannot rely on continuous
employment and rising income, so they are more cautious(谨慎的) in
spending and more value-driven(价值导向) in purchasing.
l
Views of nature人们对自然的看法
A long term trend has been humankind’s growing mastery of nature
through technology. Recently people have awakened to nature’s fragility
and finite resources. They recognized that nature may be destroyed by
human activities. Love of nature is leading to more camping, hiking,
boating and fishing. Business has responded with relevant goods to the
new requirements. Food producers have found growing markets for
“natural” food and healthy food.
l Views of organizations人们对组织的看法
People vary in the attitudes toward corporations, government agencies,
trade unions, universities and other organizations. By the large, people
are willing to work for these organizations. But there has been an overall
decline in organizational loyalty. Companies’ downsizing has caused
distrust. Many people today see work not as a source of satisfaction but
as a required chore(杂事) to earn money to enjoy their nonwork hours.
This outlook(前景) has several implications. Companies need to find
new way to win back consumer and employee confidence. They need to
make sure that they are good corporate citizens and that their consumer
messages are honest.
l Views of society人们对社会的看法
Chapter 6
Analyzing Consumer Markets
and Buyer Behavior
分析消费者市场和购买行为
The aim of marketing is to meet and satisfy target customers’ need
and wants. The field of consumer behavior studies how individual,
group, and organizations select, buy, use, and dispose of(处置) goods,
service, ideas, or experiences to satisfy their needs and desires.
Understanding customer behavior is never simple, because customers
may say one thing but do another. They may not be in touch with their
deeper motivations(不会暴露他们的内心世界), and they may respond
to influences and change their minds at the last minute.
Still, marketers can profit from understanding how and why
customers buy. For example, Whirlpool’s( 惠 尔 浦 公 司 ) staff
anthropologists(人类学家) go into people’s homes, observe how they
use appliances(家用电器), and talk with household members. Whirlpool
has found that in busy families, women are not the only ones doing the
laundry(洗衣服). Knowing this, the company’s engineers developed
color-coded(彩色控制的) washer and dryer controls to make it easier for
kids and men to pitch in(操作).
In fact, not understanding your customer’s motivation(动机), needs,
and preferences can lead to major mistakes. Studying customers provides
clues for developing new products, product features, prices, channels,
messages, and other marketing-mix elements(营销组合元素).
1 How and Why Consumers Buy?
The starting point for understanding consumer buying behavior is
the stimulus-response model(刺激反应模式) shown below. As this
model shows, both marketing and environmental stimuli(刺激) enter the
buyer’s consciousness(意识). In turn, the buyer’s characteristics and
decision process lead to certain purchase decisions. The marketer’s task
is to understand what happens in the buyer’s consciousness between the
arrival of outside stimuli and the buyer’s purchase decision.
As this model indicates, a consumer’s buying behavior is influenced
by cultural, social, personal, and psychological factors.
Marketing stimuli---Product, Price, Place, Promotion
Other stimuli---Economic, Technological, Political, Cultural
Buyer’s characteristics--Buyer’s decision process---
Cultural, Social, Personal, Psychological
Problem recognition,
Information search,
Evaluation of alternatives,
Purchase decision,
Post purchase behavior
Buyer’s decision---Product choice, Brand choice, Dealer choice,
Purchase timing, Purchase amount
1.1 Cultural factors influencing buyer behavior 影响消费者行为的
文化因素
Cultural factors include culture, subculture and social classes.
l Culture 文化--- The set of basic values, perceptions, want, and
behaviors learned from family and other important institutions. Culture is
the most fundamental determination of a person’s wants and behavior. 文
化是人类欲望和行为最基本的决定因素
Every group of society has a culture, and cultural influences on buying
behavior may vary greatly from country to country. Failure to adjust to
these differences can result in ineffective marketing or embarrassing
mistake. For example, an American company was going to promote its
products in Taiwan. In order to seek more foreign trade opportunities,
they arrived in Taiwan carrying gift of green baseball caps. It was the
time before Taiwan election and green was the color of the political
opposition party. What was worse is that, to Taiwanese, a man wearing
green cap means his wife has been unfaithful. So the company failed its
trip to make more business opportunities. The head of the delegation late
noted, “I don’t know whatever happened to those green caps, but the trip
gave us an understanding of the extreme difference in cultures.”
International marketers must understand the culture in each international
market and adapt their marketing strategies accordingly.
Marketers are always trying to find cultural shifts in order to discover
new products that might be wanted. For instance, the cultural shift
toward greater concern about health and fitness has created a huge
industry for exercise equipment and clothing, low –fat and more natural
food, and healthy and fitness services. The increased desire for leisure
time has resulted in more demand for convenience products and services,
such as microwaves ovens and fast food.
l Subculture 亚文化--- Each culture consists of smaller subcultures
that provide more specific identification and socialization for their
members. Subcultures include nationalities, religions, racial groups(民族
,宗教,种族群体), and geographic regions(地理区域). Many subcultures
make up important market segments, leading marketers to tailor products
and marketing programs to their needs.
Hyatt Hotel A practice widely followed in China, Hong Kong, and
Singapore, feng shui means “wind and water.” Practitioners of feng shui,
or geomancers(地占者, 地卜者), will recommend the most favorable
conditions for any venture, particularly the placement of office buildings
and the arrangement of desks, doors, and other items within. To have
good feng shui, a building should face the water and be flanked (在...的
侧面) by mountains. It also should not block the view of the mountain
spirits. The Hyatt hotel in Singapore was designed without feng shui,
and, as a result, had to be redesigned to boost business. Originally the
front desk was parallel to the doors and road, and this was thought to
lead to wealth flowing out. Furthermore, the doors were facing
northwest, which easily let undesirable spirit in. the geomancer
recommended design alterations so that wealth could be retained and
undesirable spirit kept out(以便留住财富和赶走鬼)。
l Social class 社会阶层
Social classes are relatively homogeneous and enduring divisions in a
society. They are hierarchically ordered and their members share similar
values, interests, and behavior. 社会阶层实在一个社会中具有相对的
同质性和持久性的群体，它们是按等级排列的。每一个成员具有类
似的价值观、兴趣爱好和行为方式
Social classes reflect income as well as occupation, education, and
other indicators. Those within each social class tend to behave more alike
than do persons from different classes. Also, within the culture, persons
are perceived as occupying inferior or superior positions according to
social class（还有，在文化上，人们根据社会阶层来判断各自社会
中地位的高低）. Social class is indicated by a cluster of variables rather
than by any single variable.
Social classes differ in dress, speech patterns, leisure activity, home
furnishings(家具), automobiles and others. Social classes also differ in
media preferences, with upper-class consumers preferring magazines and
books and lower-class consumers preferring television. When watching
TV, upper-class consumers prefer news and drama, and lower-class
consumers prefer soap operas and spot programs.
Cultural Factors
Influencing Buyers
Culture
Subculture
Subculture
Social
SocialClass
Class
Buyer
Buyer
1.2 Social factors influencing buyer behavior 影响消费者行
为的社会因素
Consumer’s behavior also is influenced by social factors, such as the
consumer’s small groups, family, and social roles and status.
1） Reference group 相关群体
Reference group consist o all of the groups that have a direct (face-toface) or indirect influence on a person’s attitudes or behavior. Groups
that have a direct influence on a person are called memberships. 相关群
体指那些直接(面对面)或间接影响人的看法和行为的群体。凡对一
个人有直接影响的群体称为成员群体。
Although marketers try to identify target customers’ reference group,
the level of reference-group influence varies among products and brands.
Manufacturers of products and brands with strong group influence must
reach and influence the opinion leader (意见领导者)in these reference
groups.
An opinion leader is the person in informal product related
communications who offers advice or information about a product or
product category. 意见领导者是对一个特定的产品或产品种类非正式
地进行传播、提供意见或信息的人。
2） Family 家庭
The family is the most important consumer-buying organization in
society, and it has been researched extensively. From parents, a person
acquires an orientation toward religion, policies, and economics as well
as a sense of personal ambition(个人抱负), self-worth(自尊), and love.
The roles vary widely in different cultures and social classes.
Vietnamese American(越南裔美国人), for example, are more likely to
adhere to(依附)the model in which the man makes large-purchase
decision.
In the United States, husband-wife involvement has traditionally
varied widely by product category. The wife has traditionally acted as the
family’s main purchasing agent, especially for food, sundries(杂物), and
clothing items. In the case of expensive products and services like
vacations or housing, husbands and wives have engaged in more joint
decision making. Marketers need to determine which member normally
has the greatest influence in choosing various products. Often it is a
matter of who has more power and expertise(专门知识).
Cadillac
Women now make up 34% of the luxury car market, and
automakers are paying attention. Male car designers at Cadillac are going
about their work with paper clip(纸夹) on their fingers to simulate(体验)
what it feels like to operate buttons, knobs, and other interior features(内
饰功能) with longer fingernails. The Cadillac Catera features an airconditioned glove box to preserve(储存) such items as lipstick and film.
Under the hood, yellow markings highlight(使显著) where fluid fills go.
General Motors
Children may also have a strong influence on
family buying decision. GM-Chevrolet( 通 用 汽 车 公 司 - 雪 佛 莱 )
recognizes these influences in marketing its Chevy Venture minivan(小
汽车). For example it ran ads to woo(拉拢) these “back-seat consumers”
in Sports Illustrated Kids (“儿童运动指南”杂志), which attracts
mostly 8-14 years-old boys. Venture’s brand manager said “We are
kidding(哄骗) ourselves when we think kids are not aware of brands.”
3) Roles an statuses 角色和地位
A person participates in many groups, such as family, club, or
organizations. The person’s position in each group can be defined in
terms of role and status. A role consists of the activities that a person is
expected to perform according to the persons around them.
Social Factors
Influencing Buyers
Family
Reference groups
Roles and statuses
1.3 Personal factors influencing buyer behavior 影响消费
者购买行为的个人因素
Cultural and social factors are just two of the four major factors that
influence consumer buying behavior. The third factor is personal
characteristics, including the buyer’s age, stage in life cycle;
occupation, economic circumstances, lifestyle; and personality, and selfconcept.
Personal Influences
Age and family life
cycle stage
Occupation and
economic factors
Lifestyle
(click here for Quick Quiz)
Personality and
self-concept
1) Age and stage in the life style 年龄和生命周期阶段
People buy different goods and services over a lifetime. They eat
baby food in the early years, most foods in the growing and mature
years, and special diets in the later years. Taste in clothes, furniture, and
recreation is also age-related, which is why smart marketers are
attentive to the influence of age.
Similarly, consumption is shaped by the family life cycle. The
traditional family life cycle covers a series of stages in adult lives,
starting with independence from parents and continuing into marriage,
child rearing empty net( 空巢）years, retirement, and later life.
Marketers often choose a specific family life-cycle group as their
target market. Yet target households are not a always family based: There
are also single households, gay households （ 同 性 恋 家 庭 ） , and
cohabitor households(非婚同居家庭）. Marketer s should pay attention
to how changing life circumstance--divorce, widowhood, re-marriage-influence consumption behavior.
2) Occupation and economic circumstances职业和经济状况
Occupation also influences a person’s consumption pattern. A bluecollar worker will buy work clothes and lunchboxes, while a company
president will buy expensive suits and country club membership(乡村俱
乐 部 会 员 ).For this reason, the marketers should identify the
occupational groups that are more interested in their products and
services, and consider specializing their products for certain occupations.
Software manufacturers, for example, have developed special programs
for lawyer, physicians(医生), and other occupational groups.
A person’s economic situation will affect product choice. Thus
marketers must track(跟踪) these, and if recession(经济衰退) is likely,
marketers can redesign, reposition and reprise their products to offer
more value to target customers.
3) Lifestyle生活方式
People from the same subculture, social class and occupation
may actually lead quite different lifestyles.
l Lifestyle 生活方式--A lifestyle is the person’s pattern of living in
the world as expressed in activities, interests, and opinions. Lifestyle
portrays the “whole person” interacting with his or her environment.
生活方式是一个人在世界上的生活模式, 表现为他的活动、兴趣
和观点。生活方式描绘出一个人与其所在环境相互作用的“全人”
。
4) Personality and self-concept个性和自我概念
Each person has a distinct personality that influences buying behavior.
l Personality 个 性 -----Personality refers to the distinguishing
psychological characteristics that lead to relatively consistent and
enduring responses to environment.
个性是指一个人所特有的心理特征，它导致一个人对他或她所处
的环境相对一致和持续不断的反应.
Personality is usually described in terms of such traits(特征） as selfconfidence, dominance（控制欲）, autonomy（自主）, deference（顺
从）, sociability（社会交际), defensiveness（保守）, and adaptability(
适应）. Personality can be useful in analyzing consumer behavior,
provided that personality types can be classified accurately and that
strong correlations（相互关系）exist between certain personality types
and product or brand choices. For instance, a computer company might
discover that many prospects show high self-confidence, dominance, and
autonomy, suggesting that computer ads should appeal to these traits(特
性) .
1.4 Psychological factors influencing buyer behavior影响消费者
购买行为的心理因素
Psychological factors are the fourth major influence on consumer
buying behavior, in general, a person’s buying choices are influenced by
the psychological factors of motivation; perception; learning; belief and
attitude.
1) Motivation 动机
We know that Anna Flores became interested in buying a camera.
Why? What is she really seeking? What needs is she trying to satisfy?
A person has many needs at given time. Some needs are biogenic
(生理状况); They arise from physiological(生理学的) states of tension
such as hunger, thirst, and discomfort. Other needs are psychogenic(心理
状况); They arise from psychological states of tension such as the need
for recognition( 重 视 ), esteem( 尊 重 ), or belonging( 归 属 ). A need
becomes a motive when it is aroused to a sufficient level of intensity.
Motive is a need that is sufficiently pressing to drive the person to act.
动机是一种需要，它能够产生足够的压力去驱使人行动。
Abraham Maslow‘s theory(亚伯拉罕 马斯洛动机理论)---Abraham Maslow sought to explain why people are driven by particular
needs at particular times. His theory is that human needs are arranged in
a hierarchy（层次）, from the most to the least pressing（迫切）. In
order of importance, these five categories are physiological needs(生理
需要), safety needs(安全需要), social needs(社会需要), esteem(尊重需
要) and self-actualization needs(自我实现需要). A consumer will try to
satisfy the most important need first; when that need is satisfied, the
person will try to satisfy the next-most-important need.
For example, starving(饥饿) people (physiological need) will not take
an interest in the latest happening in the art world (self-actualization
need). Nor in how they are seen or esteemed by others (social needs).
Nor even in whether they are breathing clean air (safety needs). But as
each important need is satisfied, the next most important need will come
into play.
Maslow’s
Hierarchy of Needs
5
Selfactualization
(self-realization)
4 Esteem needs
(self-esteem, recognition)
Social needs
3 (sense of belonging, love)
2
1
Safety needs
(security, protection)
Psychological needs
(food, water, shelter)
2) Perception 认知
A motivated person is ready to act, yet how that person actually acts is
influenced by his or her perception of the situation.
Perception is the process by which an individual selects, organizes,
and interprets information inputs to create a meaningful picture of the
world.
认知是个人选择、组织并解释信息投入，以便创造一个有意义的
个人世界图象的过程
Perception depends on not only physical stimuli, but also on the
stimuli’s relation to the surrounding field and on conditions within the
individual. Individuals can have different perceptions of the same object
because of three perceptual processes: selective attention(选择性注意),
selective distortion(选择性扭曲) and selective retention(选择性保留).
People are exposed to great amount of stimuli everyday; most of these
stimuli are screened out—a process called Selective attention(选择性注
意). The result is that marketers have to work hard to attract consumers’
attention.
Through research, marketers learned that people are more likely to
notice stimuli that relate to the current needs; this is why car shoppers
notice car ads but not appliance ads. Furthermore, people are more likely
to notice stimuli that they anticipate—such as foods promoted on a food
Web site. And people are more likely to notice stimuli whose deviations
are large in relation to the normal size of the stimuli, such as a banner ad
offering a $10 discount (not just $5). （例如减价100美元而不是减价5
美元的广告条）
Even noticed stimuli do not always come across the way that
marketers intend. Selective distortion( 选 择 性 扭 曲 ) describes the
tendency of people to interpret information in a way that will support
what they already believe. Selective distortion means that marketers must
try to understand the mind-set of customers and how these will affect
interpretations of advertising and sales information.
People also will forget much that they learn. They tend to retain
information that supports their attitudes and beliefs. Because of Selective
retention(选择性保留), Because of selective exposure, distortion and
retention, marketers have to work hard to get their messages through.
This fact explains why marketers use so much drama and repetition in
sending messages to their markets.
3) Learning 学习
l Learning involves changes in an individual’s behavior that arise
from experience.
学习是指由于经验而引起的个人行为的改变。
Most human behavior is learned. Theorists believe that learning is
produced through the interplay(相互影响) of drives(驱使力), stimuli(刺
激物), cues(诱因), response(反应), and reinforcement(强化).
Here person has a drive for self-actualization to become a photogapher.
A drive(驱动) is a strong internal stimulus that calls for action. Her drive
becomes a motive(动机) when it is directed toward a particular stimulus
object(刺激物), in this case, a camera. Her response to the idea of buying
a camera is conditioned by the surrounding cues. Cues(提示物) are
minor(次要的)stimuli that determine when, where, and how the person
responds. Seeing camera in a shop window, hearing of a special sale
price, and receiving her husband’s support are all cues that can influence
her response to her interest in buying a camera.
4) Belief and attitude 信念和态度
Through doing and learning, people acquire beliefs and attitudes
that, in turn, influence buying behavior.
l Belief 信念---- A belief is a descriptive thought that a person
holds about something.
信念是指一个人对某些事物所持有的描绘性思想。
Belief may be based on knowledge, opinion, or faith, and they may
or may not carry an emotional charge(因素). Of course, manufacturers
are very interested in the belief that people have about their products and
services. These beliefs make up product and brand images, and people
act on their images. If some beliefs are wrong and inhibit purchase, the
manufacturer will want to launch a campaign to correct these beliefs.
Certain countries enjoy a reputation for certain goods: Japan for
automobiles and consumer electronics; the United States for high-tech
innovations, soft drinks, toys, cigarettes, and jeans; France for wine,
perfume, and luxury goods. Chinese consumers in Hong Kong believe
that American products as prestigious(有名望的), Japanese products as
innovative, and Chinese products as cheap. A company has several
options when its products are competitively priced but their place of
origin turns off consumers. The company can consider co-production
with a foreign company that has a better name. Korea could make a fine
leather jacket that it sends to Italy for finishing. Or the company can
adopt a strategy to achieve world-class quality in the local industry, as is
the case with Belgian chocolates, Polish ham, Columbian coffee.
l Attitude 态度----An attitude is a person’s enduring favorable or
unfavorable evaluations, emotional feelings, and action tendencies
towards some object or idea.
态度是指一个人对某些事物或观念长期持有的好与坏的认识上的
评价、情感上的感受和行为倾向。
People have attitudes toward almost everything: religion, politics,
clothes, music and food. Attitudes put them into a frame of mind of
liking or disliking an object, moving toward or away similar objects.
Psychological Factors
Motivation
• Freud
• Maslow
• Herzberg
Beliefs and
Attitudes
Learning
Perception
• Selective attention
• Selective distortion
• Selective retention
•
•
•
•
•
Drive
Stimuli
Cues
Responses
Reinforcement
2
程
The Consumer Buying Decision Process 购买决策过
Marketers have to go beyond the various influences on buyers and
develop an in-depth understanding of how consumers actually make their
buying decisions. Specifically, marketers must identify who makes the
buying decision, the types of buying decisions, and the stages in the
buying process.
2.1 Buying roles 购买的角色
It is easy to identify the buyer for many products. Men normally
choose their shaving equipment, and women choose cosmetics. We can
distinguish five roles that people might play in buying decision:
1) Initiator 发起者
An initiator first suggests the idea of buying the product or service.发
起者是指首先提出或提出购买某一产品或服务的人。
2) Influencer 影响者
An influencer is the person whose view or advice influences the
decision. 影响者是指其看法或建议对最终决策具有一定影响的人
3) Decider决策者
A decider actually decides whether to buy , what to buy, how to buy,
or where to buy. 决策者是指在是否买、为何买、如何买、在哪买
等方面做出完全的或部分的最后决定的人。
4) Buyer 购买者
A buyer makes the actual purchase. 购买者指实际采购的人
5) User 使用者
A user consumes or uses the product or service 使用者指实际消
费或是用产品或服务的人
2.2 The stages of the buying decision process 购买决策中的各个阶段
In addition to examining buying roles and behavior, smart companies
research the buying decision process involving in their product category.
They ask consumers when they first became acquainted with the product
category and brands, what their brand beliefs are, how involved they are
with the product, how they make their brand choice, and how satisfied
they are after purchase.
The following Figure shows a five-stage model of the typical buying
process. Starting with problem recognition, the consumer passes through
the stage of information search, evaluation of alternatives, purchase
decision, and post-purchase behavior.
Consumer Buying
Process
Problem
recognition
Information
search
Evaluation of
alternatives
Postpurchase
behavior
Purchase
decision
Stage 1: Problem recognition
阶段1：认识问题
The buying process starts when the buyer recognizes a problem or
need. This need can be triggered(引起) by internal stimuli (such as
feeling hunger or thirst) or external stimuli (such as seeing an ad) that
then becomes a drive.
Anna Flores, for instance, passes a bakery(面包店) and sees fresh
baked bread that stimulates her hunger; she admires a neighbor’s new
car; or she watches a television ad for a Hawaiian vacation. After a day’s
busy work, Anna feels she need a new hobby(嗜好) and after talking
with her friends about photography, she think of camera.
By gathering information from a number of consumers, marketers can
identify the most frequent stimuli that spark interest in a product
category. They can then develop marketing strategies that trigger
consumer interest and lead to the second stage in the buying process.
Stage 2: Information search
阶段2：信息收集
An aroused consumer who recognizes a problem will be inclined to
search for more information. In this example, Anna Flores may become
more receptive to information about cameras. She pays attention to
camera ads, camera used by friends, and camera conversations. Or Anna
may go into active information search, in which she looks for reading
material, calls friends and gathers information in other ways. The amount
of searching she does will depend on the strength of her drive, the
amount of information she starts with, the ease of obtaining more
information, the value she places on additional information, and the
satisfaction she gets from searching.
The customer can obtain information from the following sources:
l Personal source 个人来源--family, friends, neighbor,
acquaintances(熟人)
l Commercial source 商业来源--advertising, Web sites, salespersons,
dealers, packaging, displays
l Public source 公共来源--mass media, consumer-rating
organizations(消费者评审组织)
l Experiential source 经验来源—handling, examining, using the
products
People often ask others—friends, relatives, and acquaintances(熟人),
professional —for recommendations concerning a product or service.
Thus companies have a strong interest in building such word-of-mouth
(口头的) source. These sources have two chief advantages. First, they
are convincing: word-of-mouth is the only promotion method that is of
customers, by customers, and for customers. Having loyal, satisfied
customers that brag about (夸张) doing business with you is the dream of
every business owner. Not only are satisfied customers repeat buyers, but
they are also walking, talking billboard for your business, second, the
costs are low. Keeping in touch with satisfied customers and turning
them into word-of –mouth advocates cost the business relatively little.
Stage 3: Evaluation of alternatives 阶段3：可供选择的方案评价
Some basic concepts will help us understand consumer evaluation
processes:
l First, the consumer is trying to satisfy a need.
l Second, the consumer is looking for certain benefits from the
product solution.
l Third, the consumer sees each product as a bundle of attributes(
属性) with varying abilities of delivering the benefits sought(寻
找) to satisfy this need.
Stage 4: Purchase decision 阶段4：购买决策
In the evaluation stage, the consumer ranks brands and forms purchase
intentions. Generally, the consumer’s purchase decision will be to buy
the most preferred brand, but two factors can come between the purchase
intention and the purchase decision. The first factor is the Attitude of
others(他人的态度), The second factor is Unanticipated situational
factors (未预期情况因素的影响).
The consumer may form a purchase intention based on factors such as
expected income, expected price, and expected product benefits.
However, unexpected events may change the purchase intention. Anna
Flores may lose her job, some other purchase may become more urgent,
or a friend may report being disappointed in her preferred camera. Or a
close competitor may drop its price. Thus, preferences and even purchase
intentions do not always result in actual purchase choice.
Stage 5: Post purchase behavior 阶段5：购后行为
The marketer’s job does not end when the product is bought. After
purchasing the product, the consumer will be satisfied or dissatisfied and
will engage post purchase behavior of interest to the marketer.
1) Post purchase satisfaction 购后满意
The buyer’s satisfaction with a purchase is a function of the closeness
between the buyer’s expectation and the product’s perceived
performance. If performance falls short of expectation, the buyer is
disappointed; if it meets expectation, the buyer is satisfied; if it exceeds
expectation, the buyer is delighted.
These feelings make a difference in whether the customer buys the
product again and talks favorably or unfavorably about the product to
others. The larger the gap between expectations and performance, the
greater the consumer’s dissatisfaction. Boeing’s salespeople tend to be
conservative when they estimate the potential benefit of their aircraft.
They almost always underestimate fuel efficiency—they promise a 5%
saving that turns out to be 8%. Customers are delighted with better-thanexpected performance; they buy again and tell other potential customers
that Boeing lives up to its promise.
2) Post purchase actions 购后行动
The customer’s satisfaction or dissatisfaction with the product after
purchase will influence subsequent behavior. These feelings make a
difference in whether the customer buys the product again and talks
favorably or unfavorably about the product to others. Satisfied
consumers will be more likely to purchase the product again. For
instance, data on automobile brand choice show a high correlation
between being highly satisfied with the last brand bought and
intention to rebuy the brand. One survey showed that 75% of Toyota
buyers were satisfied and 75% intended to buy a Toyota again; 35%
of Chevrolet buyers were highly satisfied and about 35% intended to
buy Chevrolet again. The satisfied customer will also tend to say
good things about the brand to others. Marketers say: “Our
advertisement is a satisfied customer.”
Dissatisfied consumers, on the other hand, may abandon or return the
product; take public action by complaining to the company;, going to a
lawyer, or complaining to government agencies and other group; or take
private actions such as nor buying the product or warning friends.
On average, a satisfied customer tells 3 people about a good product
experience, a dissatisfied customer gripes to 11 people. In fact, one study
showed that 13% of the people who had a problem with an organization
complained about the company to more than 20 people. Clearly, bad
words of mouth travels farther and faster than good words of mouth and
can quickly damage consumer attitude about a company and its products.
Therefore, a company would be wise to measure customer satisfaction
regularly. Companies should set up systems that encourage customers to
complain. In this way the company can learn how well it is doing and
how it can improve. The 3M Company claims that over two-thirds of its
new products ideas come from listening to customer complaints. But
listening is not enough—the company also respond constructively to the
complaints it receives.
Post purchase communications to buyers have been shown to result in
fewer product returns and order cancellations. Computer companies, for
example, can send a letter to new computer owners congratulating them
on having selected a fine computer. They can place ads showing satisfied
brand owners. They can solicit customer suggestions for improvements
and list the location of available services. They can send a magazine
containing articles describing new computer applications.
3) Post purchase use and disposal 购后使用和处置
See the following picture.
How Customers Use or
Dispose of Products
Get rid of it
temporarily
Rent it
Loan it
Give it
away
Trade it
Product
Get rid of it
permanently
Keep it
Use for
original
purpose
Convert
to new
purpose
Store it
Sell it
Throw it
away
To be
(re)sold
To be
used
Direct to
consumer
Through
middleman
To
intermediary
Chapter 9
Identifying Market Segments and Selecting Target
Markets
辨认市场细分和选择目标市场
A company can not serve everyone in broad markets such as greeting
cards (for consumers) and computers (for business), because the
customers are too numerous and diverse in their buying requirements.
This is why marketers look for specific market segments that they can
serve more effectively. Instead of scattering their marketing efforts (a
“shotgun” approach—散弹式方法), they focus on the buyer whom they
have the greatest chance of satisfying (a “rifle” approach—来复枪式方
法)
Target marketing requires marketers to take three major
steps:
目 标 市 场 营 销 需 要 经 过 三 个 主 要 步 骤 ： Segmentation—
Targeting---Positioning细分--目标--定位, 即STP.
1) Identify and profile distinct groups of buyers who might require
separate products or marketing mixes (market segmentation); 按照
购买者所需要的产品或营销组合，将一个市场细分为若干个不
同的购买者群体，并描述他们的轮廓（市场细分）；
2) Select one or more market segments to enter (market targeting);
选择一个或几个准备进入的细分市场（市场目标化）；
3) Establish and communicate the products’ key distinctive
benefits in the market (market positioning). 建立与市场传播
该产品的关键特征与利益（市场定位）。
Steps in Market Segmentation,
Targeting,and Positioning
Market
Segmentation
1. Identify
segmentation
variables and
segment the
market
2. Develop
profiles of
resulting
segments
Market
Targeting
3. Evaluate
attractiveness
of each
segment
4. Select the
target
segment(s)
Market
Positioning
5. Identify
possible
positioning
concepts for
each target
segment
6. Select,
develop, and
communicate
the chosen
positioning
concept
1 Using Market Segmentation 使用市场细分
Levels of market segmentation 市场细分的层次
Market segmentation is an effort to increase a company’s
precision marketing. The starting point of any segmentation
discussion is mass marketing. In mass marketing the seller engages
in the mass production, mass distribution, and mass promotion of
one product for all buyers. Today’s consumers can shop in mega
malls, superstore, or specialty shops. They’re bombarded(大量给予）
with messages delivered via media ranging from TV, radio
magazines, newspapers to newcomers like the Internet, fax, and email. No wonder some have claimed that mass marketing is dying.
Not surprisingly, many companies are retreating from mass
marketing and turning to segmented marketing.
1.1
Four levels: 四种层次:
1) Segment marketing 细分营销
Market segment consists of a large identifiable group within a
market, with similar wants, purchasing power, geographical location,
buying attitudes, or buying habit.
市场细分片由在一个市场上有可识别的相同的欲望、购买能力 、
地理位置、购买态度和购买习惯的大量人群组成。
For example, an automaker may identify four broad segmentations
in the car market: buyers who primarily seeking (1) basic
transportation, (2) high performance, (3) luxury, or (4) safety.
Because the wants of segment members are similar but not identical,
some scholars urge marketers to present flexible market offerings instead
of one standard offering to all of a segment’s members. A flexible market
offering consists of the product and service elements that all segment
members value, plus discretionary opinions (for an additional charge)
that some members value. (灵活的市场供应包括了细分市场中的所有
成员所重视的产品和服务基本要素，再加上细分市场中部分成员的
可选要素（可增加收费).
For example, Delta Airlines offers economy passengers a seat, food,
and soft drinks, but it charges extra for alcoholic beverages.
2) Niche marketing 补缺营销
A niche is a more narrowly defined group, typically a small market
whose needs are not being well served. 补缺是更窄地确定某些群体, 一
般来说,这是一个小市场并且它的需要没有被服务好。
Marketer usually identify niche by dividing a segment into
subsegment or by defining a group seeking a distinctive mix of benefits.
For example, the segment of heavy smokers includes two niches: those
are trying to stop smoking and those who don’t care.
3) Local marketing 本地化营销
Target marketing is leading to some marketing programs that are
tailored to the needs and want of local customer groups (trading areas,
neighborhoods, even individual stores).
目标营销正导致专为本地顾客群体（贸易地区、邻近区域，甚至
个性化商店）的需求和需要量身定做的营销方案的出现。
Retailers such as Sears and Wal Mart routinely customize each store’s
merchandise and promotions to match its specific clientele.
Proponents(赞同者) of local marketing see national advertising as
wasteful because it fails to address needs（因为这不能满足本地化的要
求 ） . Opponents argue that local marketing drives up( 增 大 ）
manufacturing and marketing costs by reducing economies of scale.
Logistical（物流） problems become magnified when companies try to
meet varying local requirements, and a brand’s overall image might be
diluted（淡化，削弱） if the products and massage vary in different
localities.
4) Individual marketing 个别化营销
The ultimate level of segmentation leads to “segments of one”,
customized marketing,” or “one-to-one marketing.” 市场细分的最后一
个层次是：“细分到人”、“定制营销”或“一对一营销”。
In the past centuries, consumers were served as individuals: the tailor
fitted suits and the cobbler(鞋匠) designed shoes for each individual.
Now technology is enabling companies to mass-customize their offerings.
Mass customization(大规模定制) is a company’s ability to prepare
individual designed products, programs, and communications on a mass
basis to meet each customer’s requirements.
Mattel
Starting in 1998, girls were able to log onto Barbie.com and
design their own Barbie Pal(伙伴). They choose the dolls skin tone(色
调), eye color, hairdo(发型) and hair color, clothes, accessories(饰品),
and name. They even fill out a questionnaire(问卷) detailing their doll’s
likes and dislikes. When Barbie’s Pal arrives with the mail, girls find the
doll’s name on the packaging along with a computer-generated paragraph
about her personality.
1.2
Effective segmentation 有效的细分
Clearly, there are many ways to segment a market, but not all
segmentations are effective. For example, buyers of salt could be divided
into blond hair and black hair customers. But hair color obviously does
not affect the purchase of salt. Furthermore, if all salt buyers bought the
same amount of salt each month, believed that all salt is the same, and
wanted to pay the same price, the company would not benefit from
segmenting this market. To be useful, market segments must be:
1) Measurable 可衡量性—The size, purchasing power and profit of the
segment can be measured. Certain segmentation variables are difficult to
measure. For example, there are 3.5 million left-handed people in the
United States—almost equaling the entire population of Canada. Yet few
products are targeted toward this left-handed segment. The major
problem may be that the segment is hard to identify and measure. There
are no data on the demographic of lefties. And the U.S. Census(人口普
查) Bureau does not keep track of left-handedness in its surveys.
2) Substantial 尺度性---The segments are large and profitable enough
to serve. A segment should be the largest homogeneous group worth
going after with a tailored marketing program. It would not pay, for
example, for an automobile manufacturer to develop cars for people who
are shorter than 1 m.
3) Accessible 可接近性---The segments can be effectively reached and
served. Suppose
4) Differential 差别性----The segments are conceptually distinguishable
and respond differently to different marketing mix elements and
programs. If married and unmarried women respond similarly to a sale
on perfume, they do not constitute separate segment.
5) Actionable 行动可能性---Effective programs can be formulated for
attracting and serving the segment. For example, although one small
airline identified seven market segments, its staff was too small to
develop separate marketing programs for each segment.
Effective Segmentation
Explain what each of the characteristics
of successful market segments:
Measurable
Substantial
Accessible
Differential
Actionable
2 Segmenting Consumer and Business Markets 细分消
费者和企业市场
2.1 Bases for segmenting consumer markets 细分消费者市场的基
础
1) Geographical segmentation 地理细分
Geographic segmentation calls for dividing the market into
different geographical units such as nation, states (provinces), regions,
counties, or neighborhoods.
For example, a company that sells products throughout the EU
will need reflect the different language spoken in the labeling of its
products.
To use geographical segmentation, marketers divide the total market
into groups according to location or other geographic criteria such as
population density or climate. For example, differences among nations
may make segmentation by country useful. In China, for instance, air
conditioners are such a luxury that Chinese buyers want a very
sophisticated model. To serve the Chinese market, Fedders developed a
new model that was stylish, lightweight, energy-efficient, and offered
such features as a remote control.
2) Demographic segmentation 人文细分
l Age and life-cycle stage 年龄和生命周期阶段
For instance, Kodak has begun selling single use cameras to kids.
These cameras are packed with an envelope to mail the film back to
Kodak for development. The goal is to make kids independent; they
needn’t ask their mom to get their film processed. Mom also won’t
see the photos they took.
Nevertheless, age and life cycle can be tricky variables. For
example, the Ford Motor Company designed it Mustang automobile
to appeal to young people who wanted an inexpensive sport car. But
Ford found that the car was being purchased by all age groups it the
realized that its target market was not only the chronologically(按年
代顺序排列地) young but also the psychologically young.
l Gender 性别
The automobile industry also uses gender segmentation extensively.
Women buy half of all new cars sold in the United States and influence
80% of new purchasing decisions. So women have become an
important potential car market in US. But women have different
frames, less upper-body strength, and more safety concerns. To answer
these issues, automakers are designing cars with hoods and trunks that
are easier to open, seat belts that fit women better, and an increased
emphasis on safety features, like air bags.
l Income 收入
Income has long been used by marketers of products and services such
as automobiles, clothing, cosmetics, financial services and travels.
However, income does not always predict the best consumer for a given
product. The most economic cars are not bought by the really poor, but
rather by those who think of themselves as poor relative to their status
aspirations; medium-price and expensive cars tend to be purchased by
the over privileged segments of each social class(由各个阶层中拥有特
权的人士所购买).
Many companies target affluent (rich) consumers with luxury goods.
However not all companies use income segmentation to target the
affluent. Many retailers also target people with middle and low incomes,
such as Family Dollar, Dollar General, and Dollar Three store. When
Family Dollar tried to seek locations for new stores, it look for lowermiddle-class neighborhoods where people wear less expensive shoes and
drive old cars that drip a lot of oil. The typical Family Dollar customer’s
household earns about $25,000 a year, and the average customer spends
only $8 per trip to the store. Yet the store’s low-income strategy has
made it one of the most profitable discount chains in the country.
l Social class 社会阶层
Social class strongly influences preference in cars, clothing,
home furnishings, leisure activities, reading habits, and retailers,
which is why many firms design products for special social classes.
However, the tastes of social classes can change over time. The
1990s were about ostentation (摆阔,铺张) for the upper classes;
affluent tastes now run toward more utilitarian (实利的—practical)
products.
3) Psychographic segmentation 心理细分
l Lifestyle 生活方式
Meat would seem like an unlikely product for lifestyle segmentation, but
one forward looking(有见地的) grocery store found that segmenting its
self-service meat products by lifestyle had a big payoff (good
performance—业绩).
Kroger Company
Walk by the refrigerated self-service meat cases of most grocery stores
and you will usually find the offering grouped by type of meat. Pork is
here, lamb is there, and chicken is over there. A Nashville, Tennesseebased Kroger supermarket decided to experiment and offer groupings of
different meat by lifestyle. For instance, the store had a section called
“Meat in minutes (速食肉类) ,” one called “Cookin’ Lite (厨房原肉类),”
another, filled with prepared products like hot dogs and ready-made
hamburger patties (肉饼), called “Kids Love This Stuff (孩子们的最爱),”
and one called “I Like to Cook (我喜欢烹饪).” By focusing on lifestyle
needs, Kroger’s test store encouraged habitual beef and pork buyers to
consider lamb and veal (小牛肉)as well. Also, the 16-foot service case,
which regularly pulled in $10,000 a week, has seen an improvement in
both sales and profits.
l Personality 个性
Marketers can endow (赋予) their products with brand personality that
corresponds to target consumer personalities. For instance, in the late
1950’, Fords and Chevrolets were promoted as having different
personalities. Ford buyers were identified as independent, impulsive(冲
动), alert of change(留心改变), and self-confident. Chevrolet owners
were conservative, thrifty(节俭), prestige-conscious(关心声誉), and
seeking to avoid extreme(力求避免极端).
4) Behavioral segmentation 行为细分
Behavioral segmentation divides buyers into group based their
knowledge of, attitude toward, use of, or response of a product.
l Occasions 时 机 —buyers can be grouped according to
occasions when they get the idea to buy, actually make their purchase,
or use the purchased item. Some holidays, like Mother’s day and
father’s day, were established partly to increase the sale of candy and
flowers. During New Year’s Day, there are more sales of greeting
cards. .
l Benefits 利益----buyers can be classified according to the
benefits they seek. One study of travelers uncovered three benefit
segments: those who travel to be with their family, those who travel for
adventure or educational purposes, and people who enjoy the
“gambling”(赌博) and “fun” aspect(方面) of travel.
l User status 使用者状况---markets can be segmented into groups of
nonusers, ex-users(曾经使用者), potential users, first-time users, and
regular users of a product. The company’s market position also
influences its focus. Market leaders focus on attracting potential users,
whereas small firms try to lure users away from the leaders.
l Usage rate 使用率—a market can also be segmented into light,
medium, and heavy product users.
For example, a recent study of US-branded ice cream buyers
showed that heavy users make up only 18% of all buyers but consume
55% of all the ice cream sold. On average, these heavy users pack
away 13 gallons of ice cream per year versus only 2.5 gallons for light
users.
Similarly, a travel industry study showed that frequent users of travel
agents for vacation travel are more involved, more innovative, more
knowledgeable, and more likely to be opinion leaders than less frequent
users. Heavy users take more trips, and gather more information about
vacation travel from newspapers, magazines, books and travel shows.
Clearly, a travel agency would benefit by directing its marketing efforts
toward heavy users, perhaps using telemarketing and special promotions.
l Loyalty status 忠诚状况
A market can also be segmented by consumer loyalty. Consumer can
be loyal to brands (Tides), stores (Wal-Mart), and companies (Ford).
Buyers can be divided into groups according to their degree of loyalty.
Some consumers are completely loyal—they buy one brand all the time.
Others are somewhat loyal—they are loyal to two or three brands of a
given product or favor one brand while sometimes buying others. Still
other buyers show no loyalty to any brand. They either want something
different each time they buy or they buy whatever’s on sale.
Bases for Segmenting
Consumer Markets
Explain how each factor affects a company’s marketing
strategy.
Geographic
Nations, states, regions,
counties, cities, neighborhoods
Demographic
Age, gender, family size, life cycle, race,
occupation, income
Bases for Segmenting
Consumer Markets
Psychographic
Lifestyle or personality
Behavioral
Occasions, benefits, uses,
attitudes, loyalty, buyer-readiness
Multi-Attribute
Smaller and better defined
target groups, geoclustering
3 Marketing Targeting Strategies
3.1 Evaluating market segmentation 评估细分市场
In evaluating different market segments, the firm must look at two
factors: (1) the segment’s overall attractiveness, and (2) the company’s
objectives and resources. First, the company must ask whether a
potential segment has the characteristics that make it generally attractive,
such as size, growth, profitability, scale economies(规模经济), and low
risk. Second, the firm must consider whether investing in the segments
makes sense according to the firm’s objective and resources. Some
attractive segments could be dismissed(摒弃) because they do not mesh
with(相合)the company’s long-run objectives; some should be dismissed
if the company lacks one or more of the competences needed to offer
superior value.
3.2 Selecting and entering market segments 选择和进入细分市场
Having evaluated different segments, the company can consider five
patterns of target market selection:
The company can consider five patterns of target market selection:
公司可考虑5种目标市场模式：
1) Single-segment concentration 密集单一市场
Many companies concentrate on a single segment. Volkswagen
concentrates on the small car market, while Porsche concentrates on the
sports car market. Through concentrated marketing, these firms gain a
throughout understanding of the chosen segment’s needs and achieve
a strong market presence. Furthermore, each firm enjoys operating
economies by specializing in its production, distribution, and promotion;
if it gains leadership, it can earn a high return on investment
2) Selective specialization 有选择的专门化The firm selects a number of segments, each objectively attractive and
appropriate. This strategy has the advantage of diversifying（分散）
the firm’s risk.
3) Product specialization 产品专门化
The approach is to specialize in making a certain product for several
segment.公司集中生产一种为各类顾客销售的产品。
An example would be a microscope manufacturer that sells microscopes
to university laboratories, government laboratories, and commercial
laboratories. The firm makes different microscopes for different
consumer groups and builds a strong reputation in the specific products
area. The downside(不利方面) risk is that the product may be supplanted
(replaced) by an entirely new technology.
4 ) Market specialization 市场专门化
The firm concentrates on serving many needs of a particular customer
group. 专门为满足顾客群体的各种需要而服务。
An example would be a firm that sells an assortment of products only
to university labs. The firm gains a strong reputation in serving this
customer group and become a channel for further products that the
customer group can use. The downsize risk is that the customer group
may suffer budget cut(削减预算).
5) Full market coverage 完全覆盖市场
A firm attempts to serve all customer groups with all of the products
they might need. Only very large firms such as IBM (computer market),
General Motors (vehicle market), and Coco-Cola (drink market) can
undertake a full market coverage strategy. Large firms can cover a whole
market through undifferentiated marketing or differentiated marketing.
Undifferentiated marketing无差异营销----In Undifferentiated
marketing, a firm might decide to ignore market segment difference and
go after the whole market with one offer. 在无差异营销中，公司可以
不考虑细分市场间的区别，仅推出一种产品来追求整个市场。
This mass-marketing strategy (大市场战略) focuses on what is
common in the needs of consumers rather than on what is different. The
company designs a product and a marketing program that will appeal to
the largest number of buyers, then uses mass distribution backed（支持）
by mass advertising to create a superior product image. The narrow
product line (产品线）keeps down costs of research and development,
production, inventory, transportation, marketing research, advertising and
product management. Presumably, the company can turn its lower costs
into lower prices to win over price-sensitive customers.
However, most modern marketers have strong doubts about this
strategy. Difficulties arise in developing a product or brand that will
satisfy all consumers. Moreover, mass marketers often have trouble in
competing with more focused firms that do a better job to satisfy the
need of specific segments and niches.
Differentiated marketing差异营销----In Differentiated marketing, the
firm operates in several market segments and designs different programs
for each market. 在差异营销中，公司决定同时经营几个细分市场，
并为每个细分市场设计不同的产品。
For instance, Intel does this with chips and programs for consumers,
business, small business, networking, digital imaging, and video markets.
General Motors does this with its various vehicle brands and models; it
tries to produce a car for every “purse, person and personality.” Nike
offers athletic shoes for a dozen or more different sports, from running
and fencing(击剑) to bicycling, basketball and baseball. P&G gets more
total market share with eight brands of laundry detergent(洗涤剂) than it
could with only one.
By offering product and marketing variations, these companies hope
for higher sales and a stronger position within each market segment.
Developing a stronger position within several segments creates more
total sales than undifferentiated marketing across all segments. P&G gets
more total market share with eight brands of laundry detergent(洗涤剂)
than it could with only one. But differentiated marketing also increases
the costs of doing business. A firm usually finds it more expensive to
develop and produce, say, 10 units of 10 different products than 100 units
of one product. Developing separate marketing plans for the separate
segments require extra marketing research, forecasting, sales analysis,
and channel management. Try to reach different market segments with
different advertising increases promotion costs. Thus the company must
weigh increased sales against increased costs when deciding on a
differentiated marketing strategy.
Chapter 10
Developing, Differentiating, and
Positioning Products through the Life Cycle
在产品生命周期中发展、区分
和定位产品
1 Challenges in New Product Development 新产品开发
的挑战
Companies that fail to develop new products (either goods or
services) are putting themselves at great risk. Over time, existing
products are vulnerable(脆弱的) to the changing customer needs and
tastes, new technologies, shortened product life cycles and increased
competition.
Yet, new-product development also entails considerable risk: Texas
Instruments lost $660 million before withdrawing from the home
computer business; DuPont lost an estimated $100 million on a
synthetic leather called Corfam; and the British-French Concorde
aircraft will never recover its investment.
1.1 Types of new products新产品的种类
l New-to-the-world products 新问世产品---New products that
create an entirely new market.
l New products lines 新产品线---New products that allow a
company to enter an established market for the first time.
l Additions to existing product lines 现行产品的增补品---new
products that supplement a company’s established product lines (package
sizes, flavors, and so on).
l Improvements and revisions of existing products 现行产品的改
进更新---New products that provide improved performance or greater
perceived value and replace existing products,e.g.Microsoft Office 2000.
l Repositionings 市场重定位---Existing products that are targeted to
new markets or market segments, such as repositioning Johnson &
Johnson’s Baby Shampoo(香波) for adults as well as youngsters.
l Cost reductions 成 本 减 少 ---new products that provide similar
performance at low cost, such as Intel’s Celeron(赛扬) chip.
The new-to-the-world category involves the greatest cost and risk
because these products are new to both the company and the
marketplace, so positive customer response is far from certain. That is
why most new-product activities are improvements on existing products.
At Sony, for instance, over 80% of new-product activity is undertaken
to modify and improve existing Sony products. Even new-product
improvements are not guaranteed to succeed, however.
1.2 Why new products fail---and succeed 为什么新产品失败—成功
New products are failing at a disturbing rate; by one estimate, 80% of
recently launched products are no longer around. But the product failures
can serve one useful purpose: Inventors, company managers and newproduct team leaders can learn valuable lessons about what not to do.
Some of the reasons for new-product failure are:
1) A high-level executive pushes a favorite idea through in spite of
negative market research findings;
2) The idea is good, but the market size is overestimated;
3) The product is not well designed;
4) The product is incorrectly positioned, ineffectively advertised, or
overpriced;
5) Development costs are higher than expected;
6) Competitors fight back harder than expected.
2
Managing New Products: Ideas to Strategy管理新
产品：从创意到战略
Discuss Each Step of
New Product Generation
Marketing
strategy
development
Concept
development
and testing
Idea
screening
Idea
Generation
Business
analysis
Product
development
Market
testing
Commercialization
2.1 Ideas generation创意产生
The marketing concept believes that customer needs and wants are
the logical place to start the search for new product ideas. Many of the
best ideas come from asking customers to describe their problems with
current products.
In addition to customer, new-product ideas can come from many
sources: scientists, competitors, employees, channel members, sales reps,
top management, inventors, patent attorneys(代理人), university and
commercial laboratories, industrial consultants, advertising agencies,
marketing research firms, and industry publications.
Toyota claims its employees submit 2 million ideas annually (about 35
suggestions per employee), and over 85% of which are implemented.
Kodak and other firms give monetary, holiday, or recognition award to
employees who submit best ideas.
2.2 Idea screening 创意筛选
Once the firm has collected a number of new ideas, the next step is to
screen out the weaker ideas, because product-development costs rise
substantially with each successive development stage. Each idea would
be reviewed against such criteria as: Does the product meet a need?
Would it offer superior value? Will the new product deliver the expected
sales volume, sales growth, and profit? The ideas that survive this
screening move to the concept development stage (next stage).
2.3 Concept development and testing概念发展和概念测试
l Product idea 产品创意----A product idea is a possible product
the company might offer to the market. 产品创意是公司本身希望提供
市场的一种可能产品的设想。
l Product concept 产品概念----A product concept is a detailed
version of the idea expected in meaningful consumer terms. 产品概念是
用有意义的消费者术语表达的详细的构想。
l Product image-----Product image is the way consumers perceive
an actual or potential product.
A product idea can be turned into several concepts by asking: who will
use this product? What primary benefit should this product provide?
When will people consume or use this product？
For instance, Daimler Chrysler is getting ready to commercialize its
experimental fuel-cell-powered electric car. This car’s low-polluting
fuel-cell system runs directly off liquid hydrogen. It is highly fuel
efficient (75% more efficient than gasoline engines) and gives the new
car an environmental advantage over standard internal combustion
engine cars. DaimlerChrysler is currently road testing its NECAR 4
(New Electric Car) subcompact(微型汽车) prototype(样机) and plans to
deliver the first fuel-cell cars to customers in 2004. Based on the tiny
Mercedes A-Class, the car accelerates quickly, reaches speeds of 90
miles per hour, and has a 280-mile driving range, giving it a huge edge
over battery-powered electric cars that travel only about 80 miles before
needing 3—12 hours of recharging.
DaimlerChrysler’s task is to develop this new product into alternative
product concepts, find out how attractive each concept is to customers,
and choose the best one. It might create the following product concepts
for the fuel-cell electric car:
Concept 1 A moderately priced subcompact designed as a second
family car to be used around town. The car is ideal for
running errands (接送孩子) and visiting friends
Concept 2 A medium-cost sporty compact(小型运动汽车) to young
people
Concept 3 An inexpensive subcompact “green” car appealing to
environmentally conscious people who want practical
transportation and low pollution
The concept can be presented symbolically or physically. Here is
concept 3, in words:
An efficient, fun-to-drive, fuel-cell-powered electric subcompact car
that seats four. This high-tech wonder runs on liquid hydrogen,
providing practical and reliable transportation with almost no pollution.
It goes up to 90 miles per hour and, unlike battery-powered electric
cars, it never needs recharging. It’s priced, fully equipped, at $20,000.
2.4 Marketing strategy development营销战略发展
Suppose DaimleChryler finds that concept 3 for the fuel-cell-powered
electric car tests best. The next step is to draft a three-part preliminary(初
步的) marketing strategy development to introduce the new product into
the market.
The first part will describe the target market; the planned product
positioning; and the sales, market share, and the profit goals for the first
year. Thus:
The target is younger, well-educated, moderate-to-high-income
individuals, couples, or small families seeking practical, environmentally
responsible transportation. The car will be positioned as more
economical to operate, more fun to drive, and less polluting than today’s
internal combustion engine cars, and less restricting than batterypowered electric cars, which must be recharged regularly. The company
will aim to sell 100,000 cars in the first year, at a loss of not more than
$15 million. In the second year, the company will aim for sales of
120,000 cars and a profit of $25 million.
The second part of the marketing strategy statement outlines the
product’s planed price, distribution, and marketing budget for the first
year:
The fuel-cell-powered electric car will be offered in three colors—red,
white, and blue—and will have optional air-conditioning and powerdrive feature. It will sell at a retail price of $200,000—with 15% off the
list price to dealers. Dealers who sell more than 10 cars per month will
get an additional discount of 5% on each car sold that month. An
advertising budget of $20 million will be split 50—50 between national
and local advertising. Advertising will emphasize the car’s fun and low
emissions. During the first year, $100,000 will be spent on marketing
research to find out who are buying the car and their satisfaction levels.
The third part of the marketing strategy statement describes the
planned long-run sales, profit goals, and marketing mix strategy:
DaimlerChrysler intends to capture a 3% long-run share of the total
auto market and realize an after-tax return on investment of 15%. To
achieve this, product quality will start high and be improved over time.
Price will be raised in the second and third year if competition permits.
The total advertising budget will be raised each year by about 10%.
Marketing research will be reduced to $60,000 per year after the first
year.
2.5 Business analysis 商业分析
In this stage, the company evaluates the proposed new product’s
business attractiveness by preparing sales, cost and profit projections to
determine whether these satisfy company objectives. If they do, the
product concept can move to the product-development stage. Note that
this cannot be a static process: As new information emerges, the business
analysis must be revised and expanded accordingly.
l Estimating total sales 估计总销售量
Management needs to estimate whether sales will be high enough to
yield a satisfactory profit. Infrequent purchase products---such as
automobiles and industrial equipment—exhibit replacement cycle that
are dictated(支配) by physical wearing out or by obsolescence(过时) due
to changing style, features and performance; sales forecasting calls for
estimating first-time sales and replacement sales separately.
l Estimating cost and profits 估计成本和利润
Management should also analyze expected costs and profits based on
estimate prepared by the R&D, manufacturing, marketing and finance
department. Companies use other financial measures to evaluate new
product proposals. The simplest is break-even(亏损平衡) analysis, in
which management estimate how many units of the product the company
will have to sell to break even with the given price and cost structure.
（管理层估计公司要卖出多少产品才能使公司处于既不赢利也不亏
损的状态）
3 Managing new product: Development to commercialization
管理新产品：从开发到商品化
1. Product development
2. Market testing
(both consumer goods and business goods)
3. Commercialization
3.1 Product development 产品开发
If the product concept passes the business analysis test, it moves to be
developed into a physical product. Up to now it has existed only as a
word description, drawing, or prototype(样机). This step involves a large
investment compared with the cost for the earlier stages.
The R&D department will develop and test one or more physical
versions of the product concept. R&D hopes to design a prototype that
will satisfy and excite consumers and that can be produced quickly and
at budgeted costs. The prototype must have the required functions and
also convey the intended psychological characteristics. The electric car,
for example, should strike consumers as being well built, comfortable,
and safe.
Consumer testing can take a variety of forms, from fringing consumers
into a laboratory to giving them samples to use in their homes. For
instance, when DuPont developed its new synthetic carpeting, it installed
free carpeting in several homes in exchange for the homeowners’
willingness to report their likes and dislikes.
3.2
Market testing市场测试
After management is satisfied with functional and psychological
performance, the product is ready to be dressed up with a brand name
and packaging, and put to a market test.
l Consumer-goods market testing 消费品市场测试
In testing consumer products, the company seeks to estimate four
variables: trial, first repeat purchase, adoption, and purchase frequency.
3.3 Communication 商品化
If the company goes ahead with commercialization, it will face its
largest costs to date. Some decisions during this stage include:
l When (timing) 何时----时机
Marketing timing is critical. If DaimlerChrysler’s new fuel-cell
electric car will eat into the sales o the company’ other cars, its
introduction may be delayed. If the car can be improved further, or if the
economy is down, the company may wait until the following year to
launch it.
If a firm learns that a competitor is nearing the end of its development
work, it can choose:
n First entry 首 先 进 入 —being first to market, locking up key
distributors and customers, and gaining reputational leadership.
n Parallel entry平行进入—launching at the same time as a rival. The
market may pay more attention when the two companies are advertising
the new products)
n Late entry后期进入—waiting until after a competitor has entered,
lets the competitor bear the cost of educating the market and may reveal
problem to avoid).
The timing decision involves additional considerations. If a new
product replaces an older product, the company might delay the
introduction until the old product’s stock is drawn down. If the product is
highly seasonal, it might be delayed until the right season arrives.
l Where (geographic strategy) 何地----地理战略
The company must decide whether to launch the new product in a
single locality, a region, several regions, the national market, or the
international market. In particular, small companies may enter attractive
cities or regions one at a time. Large companies may quickly introduce
new models into several regions or into the full national market.
Companies with international distribution system may introduce new
products through global rollouts(首次展示) . Colgate-Palmolive（高露
洁 ） uses a “lead-country” strategy. For instance, it launched its
Palmolive shampoo and conditioner first in Australia, Philippines, Hong
Kong, and Mexico, and then rapidly rolled it into Europe, Asia, Latin
America and Africa.
l To whom (target-market prospects) 给谁----目标市场预期顾客
The company must target its initial distribution and promotion to the
best prospect groups. Presumably(大概) , the company has already
profiled the prime prospects—who would ideally be early adopters,
heavy users, and opinion leaders who are able to be reached at a low cost.
The company should rate the various prospect groups on these
characteristics and then target the best prospect group to generate strong
sales as soon as possible, motivate the sales force, and attract further
prospects.
Many companies are surprised to learn who really buys their
product and why. Microwave ovens began to enjoy explosive growth
only after microwave-oven popcorn was developed. Households
dramatically increased their purchase of computers when the CD-ROM
multimedia was introduced.
l How (introductory market strategy) 用什么方法----导入市场战略
The company must develop an action plan for introducing the new
product into the rollout(首次展示) markets.
4 The Consumer Adoption Process 消费者采用过程
4.1 Stages in the adoption process 采用过程中的各个阶段
Adopters of new products have been observed to move through
five stages: 据观察，新产品的采用者发展有以下5个阶段：
1) Awareness (consumer becomes aware of the innovation but has
no information about it); 知晓
2) Interest (consumer is stimulated to seek information about the
innovation; 兴趣
3) Evaluation (consumer considers whether to try the innovation);
评价
4) Trial (consumer tries the innovation to estimate its value); 试用
5) Adoption (consumer decides to make full and regular use of the
innovation) 采用
The Consumer Adoption Process
In the past, companies used massmarketing. Now they must identify and
target early adopters by this process:
Awareness
Interest
Evaluation
Trial
Adoption
4.2 Factors influencing the adoption process 影响采用过程的因
素
Five characteristics influence the rate of adoption of an
innovation:
1) Relative advantage 相 对 优 点 ----The degree to which the
innovation appears superior to existing products; The greater the
perceived relative advantage of using a personal computer, say, in
preparing income taxes and keeping financial records, the more quickly
personal computers will be adopted.
2) Compatibility 一致性----The degree to which the innovation
matches the value and experiences of the individuals; Personal
computers, for example, are highly compatible with upper-middle-class
lifestyles.
3) Complex 复杂性---- The degree to which the innovation is relatively
difficult to understand or use; Personal computer, for instance, is
complex and will therefore take a longer time to penetrate into home use.
4) Divisibility 可分性--- The degree to which the innovation can be
tried on a limited basis; The availability of rentals of personal computers
with an option to buy increases their rate of adoption.
5) Communicability 传播性----The degree to which the beneficial
results of use are observable or describable to others. The fact that
personal computers lend themselves to demonstration and description
helps them diffuse faster in the social system.
Other characteristics that influence the rate of adoption are cost, risk
and uncertainty, scientific credibility, and social approval. The newproduct marketer has to research all these factors and give the key ones
maximum attention in designing the new-product and marketing
program.
5 Marketing through the product life cycle 产品生命周
期的营销战略
5.1 The concept of the product life cycle 产品生命周期的概念
To say that a product has a life cycle is to assert four things:
1) Products have a limited life;
2) Product sales pass through distinct stages with different challenges,
opportunities, and problems for the seller;
3) Profits rise and fall at different stages of the product life cycle;
4) Products require different marketing, financial, manufacturing,
purchasing, and human resource strategies in each stage.
Four stages: 4阶段
1) Introduction（导入期) A period of slow sales growth as the
product is introduced in the market. 产品进入市场时, 销售缓慢成长的
时期。
2) Growth（ 成长期) A period of rapid market acceptance and
substantial profit improvement. 产品被市场迅速接受和利润大量增加
的时期。
3) Maturity（成熟期) A period of a slowdown in sales growth
because the product has achieved acceptance by most potential buyers.
因为产品已被大多数的潜在购买者所接受而造成的销售缓慢的时期
4) Decline （衰退期) The period when sales show a downward drift
and profits erode. 销售下降的趋势增强和利润不断下降的时期。
Product Life Cycle Activity
Get with a partner. As each phase of the life
cycle is revealed, write as many specific
products you think presently fit into the
stages. Then share your lists in class.
Growth
Introduction
Maturity
Decline
5.2
Market strategies: Introduction stage 导入阶段的营销战略
Profits are negative or low in introduction stage because of low
sales and heavy distribution and promotion expenses. Much money is
needed to attract distributors. Promotional expenditures are high
because of the need to:
1)Inform potential consumers 告诉潜在的消费者.
2)Induce product trial 引导试用产品.
3)Secure distribution 确保分销
Companies must decide when to enter the market with a new product.
Most studies indicate that the market pioneer(市场开拓者) gains the
most advantage. Such as Amazon.com, Cisco, Coca Cola, eBay, Eastman
Kodak, Microsoft and Xerox developed sustained market dominance(优
势). The pioneer knows that competition will eventually enter the market
and charge a lower price, which will force the pioneer to lower price. As
competition and market share stabilize, buyers will no longer pay a price
premium(溢价); some competitors will withdraw at this point, and the
pioneer can then expand market share.
5.3 Market strategies: Growth stage 成长阶段的营销战略
The growth stage is marked by a rapid climb in sales, as DVD
players are currently experiencing. Early adopters like the product, and
additional consumers start buying it. Attracted by the opportunities, new
competitors enter with new products features and expanded distribution.
Prices remain where they are or fall slightly, depending on how fast
demand increases. Companies maintain or increase their promotional
expenditures to meet competition and to continue to educate the market.
Profits increase during this stage as promotion costs are spread over a
large volume and unit manufacturing costs fall faster than price declines.
During this stage, the firm uses several strategies to sustain rapid
market growth as long as possible:
1) Improving product quality and adding new products features and
improved styling;改进产品质量和增加新产品的特色和式样；
2) Adding new models and flanker products; 增加新式样和侧翼产品;
3) Entering new market segments; 进入新的细分市场；
4) Increasing distribution coverage and entering new distribution
channels; 进入新的分销渠道；
5) Shifting from product-awareness advertising to product-preference
advertising；广告从产品知名度转移到产品偏好来；
6) Lowering prices to attract the next layer of price-sensitive buyers.降
低价格，以吸引另一层次价格敏感的购买者。
5.4 Market strategies: Maturity stage 成熟阶段的营销战略
At some point, the rate of sales growth will slow, and the product
will enter a stage of relatively maturity. Three strategies for the
maturity stage are market modification, product modification and
marketing-mix modification
1) Market modification 市场改进
n Converting nonusers 转变非使用人—the key to the growth
of air freight service is the constant search for new users to whom air
carriers can demonstrate the benefits of using air freight rather than
ground transportation.
n Entering new market segments 进入新的细分市场--Johnson
& Johnson successfully promoted its baby shampoo to adult users.
n Winning competitors’ customers 争取竞争对手的顾客-Pepsi-Cola is constantly tempting(劝说) Coca-Cola users to switch.
2) Product modification 产品改进
Managers try to stimulate sales by modifying the product’s
improvement through :
n Quality improvement 质量改进
n Feature improvement 特点改进
n Style improvement 式样改进
For example, Sony keeps adding new styles and features to its
Walkman and Discman lines, and Volvo adds new safety features to its
cars. America Online regularly introduces new versions of its Internet
software. Finally, the company can improve the product’s styling and
attractiveness. Thus, car manufactures restyle their cars to attract buyers
who want a new look. The makers of consumer food and household
products introduce new flavors, colors, ingredients, or packages to
revitalize consumer buying. But customers are not always willing to
accept an “improved” product, as the classic tale(故事) of New Coke
illustrate:
Coca-Cola
Battered(接连重击) by competition from the sweeter Pepsi-Cola,
Coca-Cola decided in 1985 to replace its old formula(配方) with a
sweeter variation(变化), dubbed(授与...以称号) the New Coke. CocaCola spent $4 million on market research. Blind taste tests showed that
Coke drinkers preferred the company’s new sweeter formula. But the
launch of New Coke provoked a national uproar( 骚 动 ). Market
researchers had measured the taste but had failed to measure the
emotional attachment(爱慕) consumers had to Coca-Cola. There were
angry letters, formal protests, and even lawsuit(诉讼) threats, to force the
retention of “The Real Thing.” Ten weeks later, the company withdrew
New Coke and reintroduced its century-old formula as “Classic Coke,”
giving the old formula even stronger status in the marketplace.
3) Marketing-mix modification 营销组合改进
Product managers can try to stimulate sales by modifying marketing
elements such as:
n
Prices 价格
n
Distribution 分销
n
Advertising 广告
n
Sales promotion销售促进
n
Personal selling 销售人员
n
Services 服务
For example, Goodyear boosts its market share from 14 to 16% in 1
year when if began selling tires through Wal-Mart, Sears, and Discount
Tire.
5.5 Market strategies: Decline stage 衰退阶段的营销战略
Five strategies in the decline stage衰退期的5种战略
1) Increasing the firm’s investment 增加公司的投资(to dominate
the market or strengthen its competitive position)；
2) Maintaining the firm’s investment level until the uncertainties
about the industry are resolved; 在未解决行业的不确定因素前，公
司保持原有的投资水平；
3) Decreasing the firm’s investment level selectively, by dropping
unprofitable customer groups, while simultaneously strengthen the firm’s
investment in lucrative niches; 公司有选择地降低投资态势，抛弃无
希望的顾客群体，同时加强对有利可图的顾客需求领域的投资；
4) Harvesting (milking) the firm’s investment to recover cash quickly;
从公司的投资中获取（或榨取/撇脂）巨利，以便快速回收现金；
5) Divesting the business quickly by disposing of its assets as
advantageously as possible. 尽可能地用有利的方式处理它的资产，迅
速放弃该业务 。
6 Differentiation and positioning strategy 差别(异)和定
位战略
Companies such as Hewlett-Packard invests precious resources
to develop and then shepherd(引导) its new products through the
product life cycle. Yet in today’s highly competitive global
marketplace, a product will not survive—let alone thrive—without
some distinct competitive difference that sets it apart from every
rival product. This is why smart companies rely on differentiation.
Differentiation 差别(异)化
Differentiation is the act of designing a set of meaningful differences to
distinguish the company’s offering from competitors’ offerings.
差别化是指设计一系列有意义的差别，以便使该公司的产品同竞
争者产品相区分的行动。
Here we examine how a company can differentiate its market offering
along five dimensions: product, services, personnel, channel, and image.
Differentiation Variables（差异工具）:
lProduct----Form, Features, Performance, Conformance, Durability,
Reliability, Repairability, Style, Design
lService—Ordering ease, Delivery, Installation, Customer Training,
Customer Consulting, Maintenance and Repair, Miscellaneous
l Personal—Competence, Courtesy, Credibility, Reliability,
Responsiveness, Communication
l Channel---Coverage, Expertise, Performance
l Image—Symbols, Media, Atmosphere, Events
6.1 Product differentiation 产品差别(异)化
We can find physical products that allow little variation: chicken,
steel, aspirin. Yet even here some meaningful differentiation is possible.
Consider the many possible forms taken by products such as aspirin; it
can be differentiated by dosage, size, shape, coating, action time and
so on. On the other hand, some products can be highly differentiated,
such as automobiles, commercial machinery, and furniture. Such
products can be differentiated on features, performance, and design.
Thus, Volvo provides new and better features; Whirlpool designs its
washer to run more quietly. Similarly, companies can differentiate their
products on such attributes as conformance(一致性), durability(耐用
性), reliability(可靠性), repairability(耐用性). Suppose a Porsche 944
car is designed to accelerate to 60 miles an hour within 10 seconds. If
every such car coming off the assembly line does this, the model is
said to have high conformance.
Product Differentiation
Form
Performance
Features
Quality
RepairDurability Reliability
ability
Style
Conformance
Quality
Design
6.2 Services differentiation 服务差别(异)化
When the physical product cannot be differentiated easily, the
key to competitive success may lie in adding valued services and
improving their quality. The main service differentiations include:
l Easy ordering-定货的难易--Baxter Healthcare(巴克斯特医
疗公司) has eased the ordering process by supplying hospitals with
computers through which they send orders directly to Baxter;
Consumers can now order and receive groceries without going to the
supermarket by suing Web-based services.
l Delivery 交货—Deluxe Check Printers, Inc. has built an
impressive reputation for shipping out its checks one day after
receiving an order—without being late once in 18 years.
l Installation 安装
l Customer training 客户培训 —GE not only sells and installs
expensive X-ray equipment in hospitals, but also gives extensive
training to users of this equipment.
l Customer consulting 客户咨询
l Maintenance and repair 维护保养
Compaq Computer Compaq, with its Presario line, was the first to use
installation as a source of differentiation. Instead of providing an
instruction book filled with unintelligible(难解的) terminology, Compaq
offers customers a poster （ 宣 传 画 ） that clearly illustrate the 10
installation steps. The company uses color-coded cords, cables and
outlets to further simplify installation and has rigged up(配备) computer
with a cheerful video and audio presentation that leads new users through
setup and registration.
Canon Canon has developed a system that allows customers to return
spent printer cartridges (打印机盒) at Canon’s expenses. The cartridges
are then rehabilitated (修复) and sold as such. The process makes it easy
for customers to return used cartridges; all they need to do is drop the
prepaid package off at a United Parcel service collection station.
Customers also like the environmentally friendly aspect of the program
and tend to identify Canon as an environmentally friendly company.
6.3 Personnel differentiation 人员差别(异)化
Companies can gain a strong competitive advantage through
having better-trained people. Singapore Airlines enjoy an excellent
reputation in large part because of its flight attendants. The
McDonald’s people are courteous(必恭必敬), the IBM people are
professional, and the Disney people are upbeat（精神饱满）. The
sales forces of such companies as GE, Cisco, and Northwestern
Mutual Life enjoy an excellent reputation. Well-trained personnel
exhibit six characteristics:
l
Competence 能力、资格
l
Courtesy 谦恭
l
Credibility 诚实
l
Reliability 可靠
l
Responsiveness 负责
6.4 Channel differentiation 渠道差别(异)化
Companies can achieve competitive advantages through the way
they design their distribution channels’ coverage, expertise, and
performance. Caterpillar’s success in the construction-equipment
industry is based partly on superior channel development. Its dealers
are found in more locations, are better trained, and perform more
reliably than competitor’s dealers. Dell Computers has also
distinguished itself by developing and managing superior directmarketing channels using telephone and Internet sales.
6.5 Image differentiation 形象差别(异)化
Buyers respond differently to company and brand images.
l Identity comprises the ways that a company aims to identify
or position itself or its product; whereas image is the way the public
perceives the company or its product. 个性是公司确定或定位他自己
或产品的一种方法, 形象是公众对公司或它的产品的认知方法。
l Symbols—Image can be amplified by strong symbols. The
company can choose a symbol such as the lion (Harris Bank), apple
(Apple Computer). A brand can be built around a famous person, as
with new perfumes—Passion (Elizabeth Taylor). Companies can
choose a color identifier such as blue (IBM), yellow (Kodak), or red
(Cambell Soup).
l Media 媒体---the chosen image must be worked into ads and media
that convey a story, for example. It should appear in annual reports,
brochures, catalogs etc.
l Atmosphere 气氛----the physical space occupied by the company
is another powerful image generator. A bank that wants to convey the
image of a safe bank must communicate this through the building’s
architecture, interior design, colors, materials and furnishings.
l Events 事件----a company can build an identify through the events
it sponsors. At&T and IBM sponsor symphony(交响乐) performance.
Nike and VW sponsor European Football League, Philip sponsor
Chinese Football League.
Chapter 11
Setting Product and Brand Sreategy
设立产品和品牌战略
1.
Product mix 产品组合
A product mix (also called product assortment) is the set of all items
that a particular marketer offers for sale. 产品组合（也叫产品搭配）
是指特定的生产上提供给市场以供销售的一系列产品或项目。
A company’s product mix has a certain width(广度), length(长度),
depth(深度), and consistency(一致性). The width refers to how many
different products lines the company carries. The length refers to the total
number of items in the mix. The depth refers to how many variants of
each product are offered. The consistency refers to how closely related
the various product lines are in end use, production requirements,
distribution channels or some other ways. 广度是指公司具有多少不同
的产品线，长度是指它的产品组合中的产品种数，深度是指产品线
中每种产品的种类，产品组合的一致性是指各条产品线的最终用途
、生产条件、分销渠道或者其他方面相互关系的程度
The four product dimensions permit the company to expand its
business by adding new product lines, thus widening its product mix;
lengthening each product line; deepening product mix by adding more
variants; and pursuing more product line consistency.
At Kodak, the product mix consists of two strong product lines: the
information products and image products. At NEC, the product mix
consists of communication products and computer products.
Consistency
Product Mix
Width:
Width:number
number
ofofdifferent
different
product
productlines
lines
Length:
Length:total
total
number
numberofof
items
itemswithin
within
lines
lines
Depth:
Depth:
number
numberofof
versions
versionsofof
each
eachproduct
product
Product
ProductMix:
Mix:
all
allproduct
product
lines
linesoffered
offered
2
Product-Line Decision 产品线决策
2.1 Product-line analysis
To support decisions about which items to build, maintain,
harvest, or divest, product line managers need to analyze the sale and
profit as well as the market profile of each item.
2.2 Product-line length 产品线长度
Every company’s product covers a certain part of the total possible
range. For instance, BMW automobiles are located in the upper price
range of the automobile market. Line stretching occurs when a company
lengthens its product line beyond its current range. The company can
stretch its line downmarket, upmarket, or both ways.
With a downmarket stretch, a firm introduces a lower price line(当 公
司在市场上向下延伸时，公司会推出低价格的产品线). However,
moving downmarket can be risky, as Kodak found out. It introduced
Kodak Funtime film to counter lower-priced brand, but the price was not
low enough to match the lower-priced competitive products. When
regular customers started buying Funtime----cannibalizing the core
brand—Kodak withdraw Funtime.
With an upmarket stretch, a company enters the high end of the market
for more growth, higher margins, or to position itself as a full-line
manufacturer. （当产品向上延伸时，在市场上定位于低端产品的公
司会进入高段产品市场，之所以这样做，可能是被高端产品较高的
增长率和利润做吸引， 也可能是为了将自己定位为全线制造商）。
All of the leading Japanese automakers have launched an upscale
automobile: Toyota launched Lexus; Nissan launched Infinity; and
Honda launched Acura. (Note that these marketers invented entirely new
names rather than using their own names).
Companies that serve the middle market can stretch their product line
in both directions, as the Marriott Hotel group did. The major risk of the
two-way stretch is that some travelers will trade down after finding the
low-price hotels have most of what they want.
A product line can also be lengthened by adding more items within the
present range. These are several motives for line filing: trading for
incremental products, trying to satisfy dealers who complain about lost
sales because of missing items in the line, trying to utilize excess
capacity, trying to be the leading full-line company, and trying to plug
hotels to keep out competitors.
2.3 Line featuring and line pruning（产品特色化和产品削减）
The product manager typically selects one or a few items in the line
to feature; this is a way of attracting customers, lending prestige, or
achieving other goals. If one end of its line is selling well and the other
end is selling poorly, the company may use featuring to boost demand
for the slower sellers, especially if those items are produced in a
factory that is idled by lack of demand. In addition, manager must
periodically review the entire product line for pruning, identifying
weak items through sales and cost analysis. They may also prune when
the company is short of production capacity or demand is slow.
3
Brand Decision 品牌决策
3.1 What is brand
A brand is as a name, term, sign, symbol, or design, or a
combination of these, intended to identify the goods or services of one
seller or group of sellers and to differentiate them from those of
competitors.
品牌是一种名称、名词、标记、符号或设计，或者这些元素的
组合，其目的是借以识别某个销售者或某一些销售者提供的产品或
服务，并使之与竞争对手的产品和服务区别开来。
In essence, a brand identifies the seller or maker. Whether it is a name,
trademark, logo, or another symbol, a brand is essentially a seller’s
promise to deliver a specific set of warranty of quality. But a brand is an
even more complex symbol. It can convey up to six levels of meaning, as
shown in the following:
Levels of brand meaning
lAttributes（属性）a brand brings to mind certain attributes--Mercedes suggests expensive, well-built, durable, high-prestige vehicle.
lBenefits（利益）tributes must be translated into functional and
emotional benefits---the attribute “durable” could translate into the
functional benefit “I won’t have to buy another car for several years.”
lValues（价值）a brand says something about the product’s values---Mercedes stand for high performance, safety, and prestige.
lCulture（文化）a brand may represent a certain culture----Mercedes
represents German culture: organized, efficient, high quality.
lPersonality（个性）a brand can project a certain personality---Mercedes may suggest a non-nonsense boss (person) or reigning lion
(animal). (可使人想起一位不会无聊的老板或一头有权势的狮子)
lUser（使用者）a brand suggests the kind of customer who buys or
uses the product----Mercedes vehicles are more likely to be bought by
55-year-old top managers than by 20-year-old store clerks
What Is a Brand?
Explain what is meant by each of the following
levels of meaning for brands:
User
Culture
Attributes
Personality
Values
Benefits
The marketer must decide at which level(s) to anchor(锁定) the brand’s
identity. One mistake would be promoter only attributes. First, the buyers
are not as interested in attributes as they are in benefits. Second,
competitors can easily copy attribute. Third, today’s attributes may
become less desirable tomorrow.
The most enduring(持久) meanings of a brand are its values, cultures,
and personality. They define the brand’s essence. The Mercedes stands
for high technology, performance, and success. Mercedes must project
this in its brand strategy. Mercedes must resist marketing an inexpensive
car bearing(具有) the name; doing so would dilute(冲淡) the value and
personality Mercedes has built up over the years.
3.2 Brand equity 品牌权益
Brands vary in the amount of power and value they have in the
marketplace. At one extreme are brands that are not known by most
buyers. Then there are brands for which buyers have a fairly high degree
of brand awareness. Beyond this are brands with a high degree of brand
acceptability. Next are brands that enjoy a high degree of brand
preference. Finally there are brands that command a high degree of brand
loyalty. Aaker distinguished five levels of customer attitude toward a
brand: (Aaker将顾客对品牌的态度分为5个等级)
1) Customer will change brands, especially for price reason. Not
brand loyalty.
2) Customer is satisfied. No reason to change the brand.
3) Customer is satisfied and would incur cost by changing brand.
4) Customer values the brand and sees it as a friend.
5) Customer is devoted to the brand.
Brand equity is highly related to how many customers are in class
3,4,or 5.
High brand equity allows a company to enjoy reduced marketing
costs because of high brand awareness and loyalty, gives a company
more leverage in bargaining with distributors and retailers, permits the
firm to charge more because the brand has higher perceived quality,
allows the firm to defense against price competition.
Some people see brands as a company’s specific products and
facilities, so brands become the company’s major enduring asset. The
world’s 10 most valuable brands in 1997 were (in rank order): Coca
Cola, Marlboro, IBM, McDonald’s, Disney, Sony, Kodak, Intel, Gillette,
and Budweiser.
The top 10 brands by “News Week” of USA (美国《商业
周刊》) are : (2004)
可口可乐
微软
ＩＢＭ
通用电气
英特尔
诺基亚
迪斯尼
麦当劳
万宝路
梅塞德斯
７０４．５亿美元
６５１．７亿美元
５１７．７亿美元
４２３．４亿美元
３１１．１亿美元
２９４．４亿美元
２８０．４亿美元
２４７．０亿美元
２２１．８亿美元
２１３．７亿美元
3.3 Brand strategy decision
Over time, each type of brand can be developed further. A company
can introduce:
lLine extension—existing brand name extend to new sizes or
flavors in the existing product category
lBrand extension—brand names extended to new product categories
lMultibrands—new brand names introduced to new product
category
lNew brand--new brand name for a new category product
lCo-branding—combining two more well-known brands names.
l Line extension
Line extension introduces additional items in the same product
category under the same brand name, such as new flavor, forms, colors,
added ingredients, and package size. The vast majority of new products
(such as “lite” versions of existing foods--- 清 淡 口 味 的 食 品 ) are
actually line extension..
Line extension involves risks and has provoked heated debate among
marketing professionals. On the downside, extensions may lead to the
brand name losing its specific meaning. Some scholar called this the
“line-extension trap” today the seller must ask: New, Classic, or Cherry
Coke? Regular or diet? With or without caffeine? Bottle or can? Line
extension of strong brands, symbolic brands, brands with strong
advertising and promotion support, and early market entrants are more
successful; a company’s size and marketing competence also play a role.
l Brand extension
A company may use its existing brand name to launch new products in
other categories. Honda uses its company name to cover such different
products as automobiles, motorcycles, snow blowers（滑雪车）, lawn
mowers（割草机）, marine engines and snowmobiles（雪地摩托）
This allow Honda to advertise that it can for “six” Honda in a two car
garage.
Brand extension strategy offers many of the same advantages as line
extensions, but it involves risks. One is that the new product might
disappoint buyers and damage their respect for the company’s other
products. Another is brand dilution, which occurs when consumers stop
associating a brand with a specific product or highly similar products(既
无法把品牌与某种具体的产品或者高度相似的产品联系在一起) and
think less of the brand.
4 Packaging 包装
Packaging includes all the activities of designing and producing the
container for a product. The container is called the package, and it might
include up to three levels of material. Old Spice aftershave lotion(古风牌
剃须液) is in a bottle (primary package—主要包装) that is in a
cardboard box（纸盒） (secondary package---次要包装) that is in
corrugated box (shipping package--瓦楞纸箱) containing six dozen
boxes of Old Spice.
Developing effective package for a new product requires several
decisions. The first task is to establish the packaging concept, defining
what the package should be or do for the particular product. Then
decisions must be made on other elements----size, shape, materials, color
text(文本说明), and brand mark（品牌标记, plus the use of any
“tamperproof” devices（防伪装置）. All packaging elements must be in
harmony(和谐统一) and must fit with the product’s pricing, advertising,
and other marketing elements. Next come engineering tests to ensure
that the package stands up under normal conditions; visual tests, to
ensure that the script is legible and the color harmonious; dealer tests, to
ensure that dealers find the package attractive and easy to handle; and
consumer tests, to ensure favorable response.
Packaging should be consistent with local wants and tastes. Manu
customers in China consider Procter & Gamble’ shampoo a luxury, so the
company successfully markets single-use pouches(小袋) of shampoo
priced at the equivalent of 14 cents apiece (每个).
Chapter 1３
Designing Pricing Strategies and Programs
设计定价战略与方案
1 Adapting the Price 修订价格
Companies usually do not set a single price but rather a pricing
structure that deflects variations in geographical demand and costs,
market-segment requirement, purchase timing, order levels, delivery
frequency, guarantees, service contracts, and other factors. As a result
of discounts, allowances, and promotional support, a company rarely
realizes the same profit from each unit of a product that it sells. Here,
we will examine several price-adaptation strategies: geographical
piecing, price discounts and allowances, promotional pricing,
discriminatory pricing, and product-mix pricing.
1.1
Geographic pricing 地理定价
1) Barter 物物交换----The direct exchange of goods, with no money
and no third party involved物物交换即商品与商品的直接交换，没
有第三方参与。
2) Compensation deal 补偿贸易----The seller is paid partly in cash
and partly in products. 付给卖方的货款部分为现金，部分为产品。
A British aircraft manufacturer sold planes to Brazil for 70% cash
and the rest in coffee.
3) Buyback arrangement 产品回购----The seller sells a plant,
equipment, or technology to another country an agrees to accept as
partial payment products manufactured with the supplied equipment.卖
方向一个国家出售工厂、设备或技术，并同意接受一部分该设备生
产的产品，作为付款的一部分。
An U.S. chemical company built a plant for an Indian company and
accepted partial payment in cash and the remainder in chemicals
manufactured at the plant.
4) Offset 反向回购----The seller receives full payment in cash but
agrees to spend a substantial amount of that money in that country within
stated time period. 卖方收到的全部是现金的货款，但必须同意在一
个规定的时间内用相同的货币来购买该国的产品。
For instance, Pepsi Co. sells its cola syrup to China for RMB and
agrees to buy Chinese garments at a certain rate for sale in the U.S. More
complex countertrade(对销贸易) deals involve more than two parties.
For example, Daimler-Benz agreed to sell 30 trucks to Romania and
accept in exchange 150 Romania-made jeeps, which it sold in Ecuador
for bananas, which in turn were sold to a German supermarket chain for
deutsche marks. Through this circuitous transaction, Daimler-Benz
finally achieved payment in German currency.
1.2 Pricing discounts and allowances 价格折扣和折让
Companies often adjust their basic price to accommodate differences in
customers, products, locations and so on.
1) Cash discount is a price reduction to buyers who pay their bills
promptly. 现金折扣是对及时付清帐款的购买者的一种价格折扣
A typical example is “2/10, net 30” which means that payment is due
within 30 days and that the buyer can deduct 2% by paying the bill
within 10 days. Such discounts are customary in many industries.
2) Quantity discount is a price reduction to those buyers who buy large
volumes. 数量折扣是卖方因买方购买数量大而给予的一种折扣。
A typical example is “10 per unit for less than 100 units; $9 per unit for
100 or more units.” Quantity discounts must be offered equally to all
customers and must not exceed the cost savings to the seller associated
with selling large quantities. They can be offered on a noncumulative(不
累积的)basis (on each order placed) or a cumulative basis (on the
number of units ordered over a given period).
3) Functional discount (also called trade discounts) are offered by a
manufacturer to trade-channel member if they will perform certain
functions, such as selling, storing, and record keeping. 功能折扣(也叫
贸易折扣)，是由制造厂商向履行了某种功能，如推销、储存和帐条
记载的渠道成员提供的一种折扣。
4) Seasonal discount is a price reduction to buyers who buy
merchandise or services out of season. 季节折扣是卖主向那些购买非
当令商品或服务的买者提供的一种折扣。
Ski manufacturers will offer seasonal discount to retailers in the spring
and summer to encourage early ordering. Hotels, motels, and airlines will
offer seasonal discounts in slow selling periods.
5) Allowances are extra payments designed to gain reseller participation
in special programs. 折让是根据价目表给顾客以价格折让的另一类型。
6) Trade-in allowances are price reductions granted for turning in an
old item when buying a new one. They are most common in durablegoods. Promotional allowances are payments or price reductions to
reward dealers for participating in advertising and sales support program.
7) Specific-event pricing 特别事 件定价 —Sellers establish special
prices in certain seasons to draw in more customers. Stores offers special
prices on stationery items during a back-to-school sale.
8) Cash rebates 现 金 回 扣 ---Manufacturers offer cash rebate to
encourage purchase of their products within a specified period, this helps
clear inventories without cutting the stated price. Mazda advertisers cash
rebates on the purchase of selected previous-year models to clear these
vehicles out of dealer inventory.
9) Low-interest financing 低息贷款---Instead of cutting its price, the
company can offer customers low-interest financing. Ford offers low-or
no-interest financing to encourage the purchase of selected cars.
10) Longer payment terms 较长的付款条款---Sellers stretch loan
over longer period and thus lower the monthly payment that customers
pay. Auto companies and mortgage banks use this approach because
consumers are more concerned with affordable payments than with the
interest rate.
1.3 Promotional pricing 促销定价
Companies can use any of seven promotional pricing techniques to
stimulate early purchase. However, smart marketers recognize that
promotional pricing strategies are often aero-sum game (得不偿失的游
戏 ). If they work, competitors copy them and they lose their
effectiveness. If they do not work, they waste company money that could
have been put into longer impact marketing tools, such as building up
product quality and service or strengthening product image through
advertising.
Promotional pricing technique: 促销定价技术
1) Loss-leader pricing牺牲品定价—Stores drop the price on wellknown brands to stimulate additional store traffic. Kmart cuts the price of
selected toys to attract shoppers before Christmas.
2) Warranties and service contracts 保证和服务合同---Companies
can promote sales by adding a free or low-cost warranty or service
contract. Real estate brokers ( 经 纪 人 ) offer special warranties on
selected homes to expedite sales.
3) Psychological discounting 心 理 折 扣 ---Used legitimately, this
involves offering the item at substantial saving from the normal price. A
jewelry store lowers the price of a diamond ring and advertises “Was
$359, now $299”
1.4 Discrimination pricing 差别定价
Discrimination pricing occurs when a company sells a product or
service at two or more prices that do not reflect a proportional difference
in cost. 差别定价描述了这样一种情况，在那里公司以两种或两种以
上不反映成本比例差异的价格来推销一种产品或提供一种服务。
Discriminatory pricing takes several forms: 差异定价有以下形式
1) Customer-segment pricing 顾客细分定价---Different customer
groups pay different prices for the same good or service. For example,
museums often charge a lower admission fee to students and senior
citizens.
2) Product-form pricing 产品式样定价---Different versions of the
product are priced differently but proportionately to their respective
costs. Evian, for example, prices a 48-ounce bottle of its mineral water at
$2, while its 1.7-ounce moisturizer spray(喷雾器) sells for $6. Image
pricing
3) Image pricing 形象定价---Some companies price the same product
at different levels based on image differences. For instance, a
perfume manufacturer can put its perfume in one bottle with certain
name and image priced at $10 an ounce; the same perfume in another
bottle with a different name and image could be priced at $30 an ounce.
4) Location pricing 地点定价---the same product is priced differently
at different locations even though the cost are the same. For instance,
theaters often vary seat prices according to audience preferences for
different locations.
5) Time pricing 时间定价---Prices are varied by season, day, or hour.
Public utilities use time pricing, varying energy rates to commercial
users by time of day and weekend versus weekday. A special form of
time pricing is yield pricing(占位定价), which is often used by hotels
and airlines to ensure high occupancy. To ensure that all berths are full,
for instance, a cruise ship（游船） may lower the price of the cruise two
days before sailing.
Predatory pricing 掠夺性定价—Selling below cost with intention of
destroying competition are against the law.
1.5 Product-mix pricing 产品组合定价
We can distinguish six situations involving product-mix pricing:
1) Product-line pricing 产品线定价法
Many sellers use well-established price points (such as $200, $350,
$500 for suits) to distinguish the products in their line. Kodak offers not
just one type of film, but assortment, including regular Kodak film,
higher-priced Kodak Royal Gold film for special occasions, and still
higher-priced Adantix APS film for Advanced Photo system cameras.
2) Optional-feature pricing 选择（备选）特色定价法
Many companies offer optional products, feature, and services
along with their main product. Automakers and many other firms offer
optional products, feature, and services along with their main product.
Pricing these options is a sticky problem because companies must decide
which items to include in the standard price and which to offer as
options. Many restaurants price their liquor high and their food low. The
food revenue covers costs, and the liquor produces the profit.
3) Captive-product pricing 附带产品定价法
Manufacturers of razor and cameras often price them low and set
high markups(涨价幅度) on razor blades and film, respectively. There is
a danger in pricing the captive product too high in the aftermarket (后期
市场)---the market for ancillary(配件) supplies to the main products.
Caterpillar makes high profits in the aftermarket by pricing its part and
service high. This practice has given rise to “pirates”(非法仿制者) who
counterfeit (伪造品) the parts and sell them to “shady tree”(角落)
mechanics who install them, sometimes without passing on the cost
saving to customers. Meanwhile, Caterpillar loses sales.（卡特皮勒公司
以高价销售零件和服务，在后期市场上获得高额利润。因此哈写仿
制其零件的“非法仿制者便运应而生，他们将假冒的零件售给“角
落”机械师安装，有时他们不将节省的费用交给顾客。与此同时，
卡特皮勒公司丧失了销售额。）
4) Two-part pricing 两段定价法
Service firms often engage in two-part pricing, consisting of a fixed
fee plus a variable usage fee. Telephone users pay a minimum monthly
fee plus charges for calls beyond a certain area. The challenge is how
much to charge for the basic service and how much for the variable
usage. The fixed fee should be low enough to induce purchase; the profit
can be made on the usage fees.
5) By-product pricing 副产品定价法
The production of certain goods—meat, chemicals, and son on—
often results in by-products, which can be priced according to their value
to customers.
6) Product-bundling pricing 成组产品定价法
Sellers often bundle(捆绑，组合) their products and features at a
set price. An auto manufacturer, for instance, might offer an option
package at less than the cost of buying all of the options separately.
Because customers may not have planned to buy all of the components;
the saving on the price bundle must be substantial enough to induce them
to buy the bundle.
2 Initiating and Responding to Price Changes 发动价格变更和对它
的反应
2.1 Initiating price cuts 发动降价
Several circumstances might lead a firm to cut prices:
l Excess plant capacity 过多的生产能力
l Declining market share下降中的市场份额---which may prompt
（促使） the firm to cut prices as a way of regaining share;
l Drive to dominate the market through lower costs 发动降价以期
望扩大市场份额；
Initiating Price Changes
Initiating price cuts
Low quality trap
Shallow-pockets
trap
Fragile-marketshare trap
When considering price-cutting, marketers need to be aware of three
possible traps: 考虑降价时，营销人员需要注意三种可能的误区：
1) Customers may assume that lower-price products have lower
quality; 低质量误区，消费者认为产品低价格产品的质量低
2) A low price buys markets share but not market loyalty because
the same customers will shift to any lower-price firm; 低价能
买到市场占有率，而买不到市场的忠诚，顾客会转向另一
个价格更低的公司
3)
Higher-price competitors may cut their prices and still have
longer staying power because of deeper cash reserves.售价高的
竞争者具有雄厚的现金储备，它们也能降价并能持续更长的
时间
2.1 Initiating price increases 发动提价
Factors leading to price increases:
l Cost inflation 成本膨胀
This occurs when rising costs—unmatched by productivity gains—
squeeze profit margins, leading firms to regularly increase prices.
In fact, companies often raise their prices by more than the cost
increase called anticipated pricing. 公司提高的价格常常比成本的
增加要多，这种价格称为预期价格
l Overdemand 供不应求
When a company cannot supply all of its customers, it can use one
of the following pricing techniques: 当公司不能满足它的顾客时，常
用以下几种调价方法：
.
n With delayed quotation pricing 采用延缓报价---The company does
not set a final price until the product is finished or delivered. This is
prevalent（普遍的） in industries with long production lead time, such
as industrial construction and heavy equipment
n With escalator clause 采用价格自动调整条款 ---The company
requires the customer to pay today’s price and all or part of any inflation
increase that occurs before delivery, based on some specified price index
(指数). Such clauses are found in many contracts involving industrial
projects of long duration
nWith unbundling 采用处理产品价目---The company maintains its
price but removes or prices separately on or more elements that were part
of the former offer, such as free delivery or installation. （公司为了保
持其产品价格，将先前供应的产品分解为单一或多个构件定价出售，
如免费送货与安装） Many restaurants have shifted from total dinner
pricing to a la carte(照菜单点) pricing. A joke in countries with high
inflation is that the current price of a car no longer includes the tires and
steering wheel.
nWith reduction of discounts 减少折扣---The company no longer
offers its normal cash and quantity discounts.
Initiating Price Changes
Initiating price increases
Delayed quotation
pricing
Unbundling
Escalator clauses
Reduction of
discounts
2.3 Reactions to price changes 价格变化的反应
Savvy marketers pay close attention to customers’ reactions, because
customers often question the motivation behind price change. Customers
are most price sensitive to products that cost a lot or are bought
frequently; they hardly notice high prices on low-cost items that they buy
infrequently. Some buyers are less concerned with price than with the
total costs of obtaining, operating, and servicing the product over its
lifetime.
Competitors are most likely to react a price change when there are few
firms offering the product, the product is homogeneous, and buyers are
highly informed. They may think the company is trying to steal the
market, or may believe that the company wants the entire industry to
reduce price to stimulate total demand.
2.4 Responding to competitors’ price changes 对竞争者价格变
化的反应
How should a firm respond to a price cut that is initiated by a
competitor? In markets characterized by high product homogeneity(同
质), the firm should search for ways to enhance its augmented(扩张的)
product, but if it cannot find any, it will have to meet the price
reduction. If the competitor raises its price in homogeneous product
market, the other firms might not match it; the leader will have to
rescind(解除) the increase.
In nonhomogeneous product market（异质产品市场），a firm has
more latitude（范围）. The firm need to consider the following issues:
1) Why did the competitor change the price? Is it to steal the market,
to utilize excess capacity（利用过剩的生产能力）, to meet
changing cost conditions（适应成本变动状况） or to lead an
industry wide price change
2) Does the competitor plan to make the price change temporary or
permanent?
3)
What will happen to the company’s market share and profit if it
does not respond? Are other companies going to respond?
4)
What are the competitor’s and other firm’s responses likely to be
to each possible reaction.
Market leaders frequently face aggressive price-cutting by smaller
firms trying to build market share. Using price, Fuji attacks Kodak, and
Compaq attacks IBM. Brand leader can respond in several ways:
1) Maintain price and profit margins维持原价格和利润幅度
The leader might maintain its price and profit margin, believing that 1) it
would lose too much profit if it reduced its price. 2) It would not lose
much market share, and 3) it could regain market share when necessary.
2) Maintain price while adding value维持原价格和增加价值
The leader could improve its product, services, and communications. The
firm may find it cheaper to maintain price and spend money to improve
perceived quality than to cut price and operate at a lower margin.
3) Reducing price降价
The leader might drop its price to match the competitor’s price. It might
do so because 1) its costs fall with volume, 2) it would lose market share
because the market is price sensitive, and 3) it would be hard to rebuild
market share once it lost. This action will cut profits in the short run.
4) Increasing price and improving quality提高价格同时改进质量
The leader might raise its price and introduce new brands to bracket(围
攻) the attacking brand.
5) Launching a low-price fighter line推出廉价产品线反击
Add lower-price items to the line or create a separate lower-price brand.
Easman Kodak introduced a low-priced seasonal film called Funtime.
Miller beer launched a lower-priced beer brand called Red Dog.
Responding to
Competitors’ Price Changes
Maintain price
Maintain price
and add value
Increase price
and improve
quality
$$
Reduce price
Launch a lowprice fighter line
Price-Reaction Program for Meeting a
Competitor’s Price Cut
Has competitor
cut his price?
No
Hold our price
at present level;
continue to watch
competitor’s
price
No
No
Yes
Is the price
Is it likely to be
How much has
likely to
permanent Yes his price been
significantly Yes aprice
cut?
cut?
hurt our sales?
By less than 2%
Include a
cents-off coupon
for the next
purchase
By 2-4%
Drop price by
half of the
competitor’s
price cut
By more than 4%
Drop price to
competitor’s
price
Chapter 13
Selecting and Managing Marketing Channels
Retailing and Wholesaling
选择和管理销售渠道
零售和批发
1 What Work is performed by Marketing Channels?
l Marketing channels营销渠道----Marketing channels are sets of
interdependent organizations involved in the process of making a product
or service available for use or consumption. 营销渠道是促使产品或服
务顺利的被使用或消费的一整套相互依存的组织
Why would a producer delegate（授权）some of the selling job to
intermediaries? After all, doing so means giving some control over how
and to whom the products are sold. The use of intermediaries results
from their greater efficiency in making goods available to target markets.
Through their contacts, experience, specialization, and scale of operation,
intermediaries usually offer the firm more than it can achieve on its own.
Figure 13.1 shows how using intermediaries can provide economies.
Part A shows three manufacturers, each using direct marketing to reach
three customers, for a total of nine contacts. Part B shows the three
producers working through one distributor, who contacts the three
customers, for a total of only six contacts. Clearly, working through a
distributor is more efficient in such situations.
Reducing the Number of Channel
Transactions
Number of contacts without a distributor: M x C = 3 X 3 = 9
Manufacturer
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
Customers
1.1 Channel functions and flows （渠道的功能和流程）
A marketing channel performs the work of moving goods from
producers to consumers, overcoming the time, place, and possession
gaps that separate goods and services from those who need or want them.
Members of the marketing channel perform a number of key functions:
l They gather information about potential and current customers,
competitions, and other actors and forces in the marketing environment,
l They develop and disseminate(传播) persuasive communications
to stimulate purchasing,
l They reach agreement on price and other terms so that transfer of
ownership of possession can be effected,
l They place orders with manufacturers
l They acquire the funds to finance inventories at different levels in the
marketing channel,
l They assume(承担) risks connected with carrying out channel
work(他们通过银行或其他金融机构为买方贷款) ,
l They provide for the successive（一系列的）storage and movement
of physical products,
l They provide for buyer’s payment of their bills through banks and
other financial institutions,
l They oversee（监督） actual transfer ownership from one
organization or person to another.
1.2
Channel levels 渠道级数
l Zero-level channel 零级渠道--Direct-marketing channel 直接销售渠
道
l One-level channel 一级渠道 -- One-level channel contains one selling
intermediary 一级渠道包括一个中间机构
l Two-level channel二级渠道-- Two-level channel contains two selling
intermediaries
lThree-level channel 三级渠道--Three-level channel contains three
selling intermediaries
Consumer Marketing Channels
0-level channel
Mfgr.
Consmr
1-level channel
Mfgr.
Retailer
Consmr
2-level channel
Whlslr
Mfgr.
Retailer
Consmr
Retailer
Consmr
3-level channel
Whlslr
Mfgr.
Jobber
Industrial Marketing Channels
1-level channel
Industrial
distributors
2-level channel
Manufacturer’s
representative
3-level channel
Manufacturer’s
sales branch
Consumer
Manufacturer
0-level channel
2
Channel-Design Decisions 渠道设计决策
2.1 Identifying major channel alternatives 识别主要的渠道选择方案
1) Types of intermediaries 中间机构的类型
l Merchants---such as wholesalers and retailers to resell the goods.
l Agents----such as brokers, manufacturers’ representatives and sales
agents.
l Facilitators---such as transportation companies, independent
warehouses, banks and advertising agencies.
2) Number of intermediaries 中间机构的数量
Companies have to decide on the number of intermediaries to use
at each channel level. Three strategies are available: exclusive
distribution, selective and intensive distribution distribution
l Exclusive distribution 专营性分销----Exclusive distribution
means severely limiting the number of intermediaries. 专营性分销是
严格限制中间商的数量。
It is used when the producer wants to maintain control over the
service level and service outputs offered by the reseller. Often it
involves exclusive dealing arrangement, in which the resellers agree
not to carry competing brands. By granting exclusive distribution, the
producer hopes to obtain more dedicated and knowledgeable selling. It
requires greater partnership between seller and reseller and is used in
the distribution of new automobiles, some major appliances, and some
women’s apparel brand.
l Selective distribution 选 择 性 分 销 ----Selective distribution
involves the use of more than a few but less than all of the intermediaries
who are willing to carry a particular product. 选择性分销是利用一家以
上，但又不是让所有愿意经销的几家机构都来经营某一种产品。
In this way, the producer avoids dissipating its efforts over too
many outlets, and it gains adequate market coverage with more control
and less cost than intensive distribution. Nike, the world largest athletic
shoemaker, is a good example of selective distribution.
l Intensive distribution 密集性分销----Intensive distribution
consists of the manufacturer placing the goods or services in as many
outlets as possible. 密集性分销的特点是尽可能多地使用商店销售
商品或服务。
This strategy is generally used for items such as tobacco
products, soap, snack food, and gum, products for which the
consumer requires a great deal of location convenience.
3 Retailing 零售
Retailing includes all of the activities involved in selling
goods or services directly to final consumers for personal, nonbusiness
use. A retailer or retail store is any business enterprise whose sales
volume comes primarily from retailing.
3.1 Types of retailing
See pictures
Major store retailer types:
Specialty store
专业商店
Department store 百货商店
Supermarket
超级市场
Convenience store 便利店
Discount store
折扣店
Off-price store
折价零售店
Superstore
目录商店
Types of Retailers
Discount stores
Broad product line, low margin, high volume
Off-price retailer
Inexpensive, overruns, irregulars, leftovers
Superstores
Large assortment of routinely purchased food
and nonfood products, plus services
Catalog showroom
Broad selection, fast turnover, discount prices
New store types emerge to meet widely different customer
preferences for service levels and specific services. Retailers can position
themselves as offering one of the four levels of service:
l Self-service: self-service is the cornerstone(基础) of all discount
operations, allowing customers to save money by carrying out their own
locate-compare-select process(寻找-比较-选择过程).
l Self-selection: Customers find their own goods----although they
can ask for assistance---and they then complete the transaction by paying
a salesperson for the item.
l Limited service: These retailers carry more shopping goods, and
customers need more information and assistance. The stores also offer
services (such as credit and merchandise-return privileges).
l Full service: Salespeople are ready to assist in every phase of
the locate-compare-select process. The high staffing cost, along with the
higher promotion of special goods and slower-moving items plus more
service, result in high-cost retailing.
3.2 Retailer marketing Decisions
Retailers’ marketing decision includes the areas of target market,
product assortment and procumbent, services and store atmosphere,
price promoting and place.
1) Target market
A retailer’s most important decision concerns the target market.
Until the target market is defined and profiled, the retailer can not
make consistent decisions on product assortment( 品 种 ） , store
dector（布置）, advertising messages and media, price and service
level.
Wal Mart
The late（已故的）Sam Walton and his brother opened
the first Wal Mart discount store in Roger, Arkansas, in 1962. It was a
big, flat, warehouse-type store selling everything from apparel to
automotive supplies to small appliances at the lowest possible prices to
small-town America. More recently, Wal Mart has been building stores in
larger cities. Today, Wal Mart operates 2,363 discount stores in the
United States, including 454 Supercenters, 444 Sam’s Club, and 41
distribution centers. Its annual sales exceed $117 billion, making it the
world’s largest retailer and the largest company. It is expanding into the
Wal Mart Neighborhood Market supermarket-pharmacy business(它扩展
到沃尔玛附近的超级市场药店业务).
Wal Mart’s secret: Target small-town America, listen to the customers,
treat the employee as partners, purchase carefully, and keep a tight rein
（控制）on expenses. Signs reading “Satisfaction Guaranteed” and “We
Sell for Less” hang prominently（醒目地） at the store entrance, and
customers are often welcomed by a “people greeter.” Wal Mart is
frequently cited as a retailing pioneer. Its use of everyday low pricing
and EDI(电子数据交换) for speed stock replenishment(补充) has been
benchmarked by other retailers（被其他零售商作为丁点超越的目标）,
and it was the first U.S. megamerchant( 大商业 企 业 ) to take the
plunge( 跳 进 ) into global retailing. It already has over 600 stores
overseas—in Argentina, Brazil, China, South Korea, and Mexico—and is
adding more.
2）
Product assortment（品种） and procurement（采购）
The retailer’s product assortment---breath and depth must match
the target marketer’s shopping expectations. Thus, a restaurant can offer
a narrow and shallow(窄而浅) assortment (small lunch counters), a
narrow and deep(窄而深) assortment (delicatessen—熟食店)), a broad
and shallow（宽而浅） assortment (cafeteria), or a broad and deep（宽
而深）assortment (large restaurant).
3）Service and store atmosphere
Service mix is one of the key tools for differentiating one store
from another. Options include:
l Prepurchase service （ 购 前 服 务 ） such as telephone and mail
orders, advertising, window and interior display, fitting rooms试衣间）
shopping hours, fashion shows, and trade-ins （ 旧 货 折 价 收 进 ） .,
shopping hours, fashion shows, and trade-ins.
l Postpurchase service（购后服务） such as shipping and delivery,
gift wrapping, adjustments and return, alternations and tailoring(换货和
定制), installations and engraving(代顾客雕字).
l Ancillary service（辅助服务）such as general information, check
cashing（兑换支票）, parking, restaurants, repair, interior decorating,
credit（赊帐信用交易）, rest rooms, and baby-attendant service(照看
婴儿服务).
Atmosphere is another different tool in the store’s arsenal. The store
must embody a planned atmosphere that suits the target and draws
consumers toward purchase. Supermarkets, for example, have found that
varying the tempo of music affects the average time spent in the store
and the average expenditures
.
Mall of America
The largest mall in the United States, the Mall of
America near Minneapolis, is a superregional mall plus a 70-acre
amusement park. Opened in 1992, it now has a total of over 400 stores
that employ more than 12,000 people. Anchored （停泊） by 4 major
department stores—Nordstrom, Macy’s, Bloomingdale’s, and Sears—it
has become a tourist destination for avid(渴望的) shoppers from around
the world. It now attracts between 35 million and 40 million visits yearly,
and has led to the completion of 7,000 hotel and motel rooms in the area.
Other attractions at the Mall of America include a 14-screen General
Cinema, Under Water World, an interactive( 交 互 作 用 的 ) Daimler
Chrysler Showcase(陈列馆), Golf Mountain, a Rainforest(热带雨林)
Café, and even a Chapel（教堂）of Love, where over a thousand
couples have been married.
4) Place decision
l General business district(中心商业区)---“Downtown,” the oldest
and most heavily trafficked city area. Rents are normally high, but a
renaissance(复兴) is bringing shoppers back to many cities.
l Regional shopping centers(地区购物中心)----Large suburban mall
containing 40—200 stores and generally with one of more famous stores,
offering generous parking, one-stop shopping and other facilities.
l Community shopping centers(社区购物中心)----Smaller mall with
one famous store and 20—40 small stores.
l Strip malls (shopping strip)(购物区)---A cluster of stores, usually
housed in one long building.
l Location within a large store(店中店)----Concession( 租让) space
rented by McDonald’s and other retailers inside the unit of a large retailer
or an operation such as an airport.
4 Wholesaling 批发
Wholesaling includes all of the activities involved in selling goods or
services to those who buy for resale or business use. Wholesaling
excludes manufacturers and farmers (because they are not engaged in
primarily in production) and retailers.
Wholesalers (also called distributors) differ from retailers in a number
of ways. First, wholesalers pay less attention to promotion, atmosphere,
and location because they are dealing with business customers rather
than final consumers. Second, wholesale transactions are usually larger
than retail transactions, and wholesalers usually cover a large trade area
than retailers. Third, the government deals with wholesalers and retailers
differently regarding legal regulations and taxes.
Why don’t manufacturers sell directly to retailers or final
consumers rather than through wholesalers? The main reason is
efficiency: wholesalers are often better at handling one or more of these
functions:
l
l
l
l
l
l
l
l
l
Selling and promoting
Buying and assortment building（采购和置办多种商品）
Bulk breading（大宗购买）
Warehousing
Transportation
Financing
Risk bearing（承担风险）
Market information
Management services and counseling（管理服务和建议)
Why are Wholesalers Used?
Management
Services & Advice
Selling and
Promoting
Market
Information
Buying and
Assortment Building
Wholesaler
Functions
Bulk Breaking
Risk Bearing
Financing
Warehousing
Transporting
Chapter 15 Designing and Managing
Integrated Marketing
设计和管理整合营销
1 Decide on the marketing communication mix 开发有
效的传播
1.1 Developing and managing the marketing communication
mix
Promotional tools 促销工具
l Advertising 广告
l Sales promotion 销售促进
l Public relations and publicity 公馆与宣传
l Personal selling 人员推销
l Direct marketing 直接营销
Advertising
Public, pervasive, expressive, impersonal
Sales promotion
Communication, incentive, invitation
Public relations and publicity
Credibility, surprise, dramatization
Personal Selling
Personal confrontation,
cultivation, response
Direct Marketing
Nonpublic, customized,
up-to-date, interactive
1.2 Factors in setting the marketing communications mix 确定营
销传播的组合的因素
1） Type of product market 产品市场类型
For consumer goods, the relative importance of promotion tools
goes in this way:
Sales promotion>Advertising>Personal selling>Public relation
For industrial goods, the relative importance of promotion tools
goes in this way:
Personal selling> Sales promotion>Advertising>Public relation
Although advertising is used less than sales promotion and personal
selling, it still plays a significant role in building awareness and
comprehension, serving as an efficient reminder of the product,
generating leaders, legitimizing the company and products, and
reassuring customers about their purchase. Personal selling can also
make a strong contribution in consumer-goods marketing by helping to
persuade dealers to take more stock and display more of the product,
build dealer enthusiasm, sign up more dealers, and grow sales at existing
accounts.
2）Push-versus-pull strategy 推动与拉引战略
n Push strategy involves the manufacturer using sales force and trade
promotion to induce intermediaries to carry, promote, and sell the
product to end users. 推动战略要求制造商使用销售队伍和贸易促销
，刺激中间商向最终用户推出、促销和销售产品。
This is especially appropriate where is low brand loyalty in a
category; brand choice is made in the store; the product is an important
item; and product benefits are well understood.
n Pull strategy involves the manufacturer using advertising and
consumer promotion to induce consumers to ask intermediaries for the
product, thus inducing the intermediaries to order it 拉引战略要求制造
商使用广告和消费者促销，刺激消费者向中间商提出对某项产品的
要求，以刺激中间商订购该产品。
This is especially appropriate when there is high brand loyalty; and
people choose the brand before they go to the store.
Push Versus Pull Strategy
Producer
Marketing
activities
Intermediaries
Marketing
activities
Demand
End users
Push Strategy
Marketing activities
Demand
Producer
Intermediaries
Demand
End users
Pull Strategy
3) Product-life cycle stage 产品生命期阶段
Advertising and public relation are most cost effective in the
introduction stage; then all the tools can be toned down (缓和) in the
growth stage because the demand is building word of mouth. Sales
promotion, advertising and personal selling grow more important in the
maturity stage. In the decline stage, sales promotion continues strong,
advertising and publicity are reduced, and salespeople give the product
only minimum attention.
4) Company market rank 公司市场排列
Market leaders derive more benefits from advertising than from sales
promotion. Conversely, smaller competitors gain more by using sales
promotion in their marketing communication mix.
Developing Promotion Mix
Strategies
Company
market rank
Type of
product/
market
Buyer/
readiness
stage
Product lifecycle stage
Push vs. pull
strategy
1.3 Integrated marketing communication (IMC) 整合营销传播
Integrated marketing communication (IMC) is a concept of
marketing communications planning that recognizes the added value of
a comprehensive plan that evaluates the strategic roles of a variety of
communications disciplines. 整合营销传播的概念是确认评估各种
传播方法战略作用的一个综合计划的增加价值。
2 Developing and Managing the Advertising Campaign
开发和管理广告程序
Advertising is any paid form of nonpersonal presentation and
promotion of ideas, goods, or services by an identified sponsor. 广告
是由明确的主办人发起，通过付费用的任何非人员介绍和促销其
创意、商品或服务的行为。
Advertisers include not only business firms but also museums,
charitable organizations, government agencies that direct messages to
target public. Ads are a cost-effective way to disseminate messages,
whether to build brand preference for Intel computer chips or to
educate people about the danger of drugs.
In developing an advertising program, successful firms start by
identifying the target market and buyer motives. Then they can make
five critical decisions, known as Five Ms.
Five Ms: 5 Ms
l Mission: what are the advertising objectives? 任务：广告的目的
是什么？
l Money: how much can be spent? 资金：要花多少钱？
l Message: what message should be sent? 信息：要传送什么信 息
？
l Media: what media should be used? 媒体：使用什么媒体？
l Measurement: how should the results be evaluated? 衡量：如何评
价结果
The Five Ms of Advertising
Mission
Money
Media
Message
Measurement
2.1
Setting the advertising objectives 建立广告目标
l
Informative advertising 通知性广告---The objective is to
build primary demand. Thus DVD makers initially had to inform
consumers of the benefits of this technology.
l Persuasive advertising 说服性广告---becomes important in the
competitive stage, where the objective is to build selective demand
for a particular brand. Some persuasive advertising is comparative
advertising, which explicitly compare two or more brands.
l Reminded advertising 提 醒 性 广 告 ----is important with
mature
products. Coco-Cola ads are primarily intended to
remind people to purchase Coco-Cola. Automobile ads often depict
(describe).
2.2 Choosing the advertising message 选择广告信息
1) Message generation 信息的产生
2) Message evaluation and selection 信 息 的 评 价 和 选 择
l Messages are rated on: desirability, exclusiveness, and
believability. 信息可以根据愿望性、独占性和可信性来加以评估。
3) Message execution 信息的表达
l Rational positioning 理智定位
l Emotional positioning 情感定位
The actual words in an ad must be memorable and attentiongetting to make an impression on the audience. The following ad
themes (column on left) would have had much less impact without the
creative phrasing (column on right)
4) Social responsibility信息的社会责任观
Choosing the
Advertising Message
1. Message
evaluation and
selection
2. Message
execution
3. Social
responsibility
4. Message
generation
Our technology can help you do almost anything
Where do you want to go today?”(Microsoft)
No hard sell, just a good car
“Drivers wanted” (VW)
7-up is not Cola
“Un-Cola”
Let’s drive you in our bus instead of driving your car
“Take the bus, and leave the driving to us”
2.3 Developing media strategies 发展媒体战略
1) Deciding reach, frequency, and impact 决定接触面、频率和
影 响
Media selection 媒体选择
Media selection involves finding the most cost-effective media to
deliver the desired number of exposures to the target audience. 媒
体选择就是有关寻找向目标受众传达预期展露次数的展露成
本效益最佳的途径问题。
l Reach (R): The number of different persons or households
that
are exposed to a particular media schedule at least once during
a specified time period.
l Frequency (F): The number of times within the specified time
period that an average person or household is exposed to the
message.
l Impact (I): The qualitative value of an exposure through a
given medium (thus a food ad in Good Housekeeping would have a
higher impact than the same ad in the Police Gazette.
2) Selecting media and vehicles 选择媒体工具
lTarget-audience media habits 目标受众的媒体习惯
l products产品
l message广告信息
l cost 费用
3) Deciding on media timing 决定媒体时间安排
l In launching a new product, the advertiser can choose among
ad continuity, concentration, flighting, and pulsing. 在推出一项
新产品时，广告客户必须在广告连续性、集中性、时段性和
节奏性中间做出选择。
3 Sales-Promotion Strategies 销售促进战略
Sales promotion, a key ingredient in any marketing campaigns,
consists of a diverse collection of incentive tools, mostly short term,
designed to stimulate trial, or quicker or greater purchase, of
particular products or services by consumers or the trade. 销售促进
包括各种多数属于短期性的刺激工具，用以刺激消费者和贸易
商较迅速或较多地购买某一特定产品或服务。
Whereas advertising offers a reason to buy, sales promotion
offers an incentive to buy. 如果广告提供了购买的理由，而销售促
进则提供了购买的刺激。
3.1 Purchase of sales promotion 销售促进的目的
Sellers-promotion tools can be used to achieve a variety of objectives.
Sellers use incentive-type promotions to attract new triers, to reward
loyal customers, and to increase the repurchase rates of occasional(偶然
性) users. New triers are of three types----users of another brand in the
same category, users in other categories, and users of brand switchers(品
牌转换者). Sale promotion often attract the brand switchers, because
users of other brands and categories do not always notice or act on
promotion. Brand switchers are primarily looking for low price, good
value or premium, so sales promotions are unlikely to turn them into
loyal users.
Sales promotion, with its incessant(不断的) price off, coupons, and
premiums(奖金), may devalue the product offering in the buyers’ minds.
When a brand is price promoted too often, the consumer begins to buy it
mainly when it goes on sale. So there is risk in putting a well-known
brand leader on promotion over 30% of the time. Kellog (凯洛格), Draft
（卡夫） and other market leaders are trying to return to “pull”
marketing by increasing their advertising. They blame the heavy use of
sales promotion for decreasing brand loyalty, increasing consumer price
sensitivity, brand-quality-image dilution, and a focus on short-run
marketing planning.
Some people think that sales promotion enable manufacturers to adjust
to short-term variation in supply and demand, adapt programs to
different consumer segments, induce consumers to try new products, and
lead to more varied retail formats. On the customer side, sales promotion
raise awareness of prices and helps consumers feel satisfied as smart
shoppers.
Make sure the promotion is justified. For example, a new store opening,
a company anniversary and other kinds of celebrations are all good
seasons for running a promotion. Celebrating autumn back-to-school
times are not good reasons to run promotions, as they are too generic.
Festivals and anniversaries are good.
3.2
Major decisions in sales promotion 销售促进的主要决策
1) Establishing objectives 建立目标
The specific objectives for sales promotion vary with the target
market. For consumers, objectives include encouraging purchase of the
large-size units, building trial among nonusers, and attracting switchers
away from competitors’ brands. For retailers, the objectives include
persuading retailers to carry new items and higher levels of inventory,
encouraging off-season buying, offsetting competitive promotions,
building brand loyalty, and gaining entry into new retail outlets. For
the sales force, objectives include encouraging support of a new
product or model, encouraging more prospects, and simulating ofseason sales.
For example, a new store opening, a company anniversary and
other kinds of celebrations are all good seasons for running a
promotion. Celebrating autumn back-to-school times are not good
reasons to run promotions, as they are too generic. Festivals and
anniversaries are good.
2）Selecting consumer-promotion tools ----选择消费者促销工具
l Sample（样品)-----Offer free amount of a product or service
l Coupon(优惠券)----Certificates offering a stated saving on the
purchase of a specific product.
l Cash refund offers (rebate)(现金折扣，现金退款)----Provide a
price reduction after purchase---- Customer sends a specified “proof of
purchase” to the manufacturer who “refunds” part of the purchase price
by mail.
l Price pack (cents –off deal)(特价包, 小额折价交易)---- Promoted
on the package or label, these offer savings off the product’s regular
price.
l Premium(奖品)---- Merchandise offered at low or no cost as an
incentive to buy a particular product
l Prizes (contests, sweepstakes, games)(通过竞赛、抽奖、游戏获
得奖金)---- Customers are offered with the chance to win cash, trips, or
merchandise as a result of buying something.
l Patronage awards(光顾奖励)----Values in cash or points given to
reward patronage of a certain seller. Most airlines offer frequent flier
plans.
l Product trials(免费试用)---- Inviting prospects to try the product
free in the hope that they will buy the product.
l Product warranties(产品保证)----Explicit or implicit promises by
sellers that the product will perform as specified or that the seller will fix
it or refund the customers’ money during a specified period. When
Chrysler offered a five-year car warranty, substantially longer than GM’s
and Ford’s, customers took notice. Sear’s offer of a lifetime warranty on
its auto batteries will certainly benefit the customers.
l Tie-in promotions( 联 合 促 销 )----two or more brands or
companies team up on coupons, refunds, and contests to increase pulling
power.
l Cross-promotions(交叉促销)---- using one brand to advertise
another noncompeting brand.
l Point-purchase (POP) displays and demonstrations(售点陈列
和商品示范)----Display and demonstrations that take place at the point
of purchase or sale.
l Manufacturer promotion is illustrated by the auto industry’s
frequent use of debates and gifts to motivate test-drivers and purchase.
Retailer promotions include capons, and retailer contests or premiums.
3) Selecting trade-promotion tools ----选择交易促销工具
l Price-pff (off-invoice or off-list) 价格折扣（又称发票折扣或
价目单折扣）
l Allowance（折让）
l Free goods（免费商品）
Manufactures can use the above trade promotion tools to: 1)
persuade an intermediary to carry(经销) the product; 2) persuade an
intermediary to carry more units; 3) induce retailers to promote the
brand by featuring, display, an price reduction (使零售商通过宣传产
品特色、展示以及降价来推广产品); 4) stimulate retailers and their
salespeople to push the products.
4) Selecting business-and sales force promotion tools 选择业务和销
售队伍的促销工具
l Trade show and conventions( 贸 易 展 览 会 )----industry
associations organize trade shows and conventions where firms buy
space and set up booths and displays to demonstrate and sell their
products and services. Firms expect several benefits, including
generating new sales leaders, maintaining customer contact, introducing
new products, meeting new customers, selling more to present
customers, and educating customers with publications, videos and other
audiovisual materials.
l Sales contests （销售竞赛)---induce salespeople to force or
dealers to increase sales over a stated period, with prizes going to those
who succeed.
l Specialty advertising（纪念品广告)---- these include useful,
low-cost items bearing the company’s name and address, and sometimes
an advertising message that salespeople give to prospects and customers.
Common items are ballpoint pens, calendars etc.
4 Public Relations Strategies 公共关系战略
Public
A public is any group that has an actual or potential interest in or
impact on a company’s ability to achieve its objectives. 公众是任何一
组群体，它对公司达到其目标能力具有实际的或潜在的兴趣或影
响力。
Public relation (PR)
Public relation involves a variety of programs that are designed to
promote or protect a company’s image or its individual products. 公共
关系包括设计用来推广或保护一个公司形象或它的个别产品的各
种计划。
Five functions:5项职能：
1 ） Press relations (presenting news and information about the
organization in the most positive light); 与新闻界的关系（用正面的形
式战时关于本组织的新闻和信息）；
2）Product publicity (publicizing specific products); 产品的公共宣
传（为某些特定产品做宣传）；
3 ） Corporate communication (promoting understanding of the
organization through internal and external communications); 公司的信
息传播（通过内部和外部信息传播来促进对本机构的了解）；
4）Lobbying (dealing with legislators and government officials to
promote or defeat legislation and regulation); 游说（与立法者和政府官
员打交道，以促进或挫败立法和规定）；
5）Counseling (advising management about public issues and company
positions and image---and advising in the event of a mishap). 咨询（就
公司事件问题、公司地位和公司形象向管理当局提出建议，提出产
品灾祸时的建议）
4.1 Marketing public relations 营销公关 (MPR)
MPR plays an important role in: 营销公关有助于完成下述任务：
l Assisting in the launch of new products 协助新产品上市；
l Assisting in repositioning a mature product 协助成熟其产品的
再定位；
l Building interest in a product category 建立对某一产品的兴趣
；
l Influencing specific target groups 影响特定的目标群体；
lDefending products that have encountered public problems.保护
遭遇社会问题的产品
lBuilding the corporate image in a way that reflects favorably on
its products 建立有利于表现产品特点的公司形象。
4.2 Major decisions in marketing 营销公关的主要决策
In considering when and how to use MPR, management must establish
the marketing objectives, choose the messages and vehicles, implement
the plan carefully, and evaluate the results. The main tools of MPR are
described as follows:
Major tools in marketing PR 主要的营销公关工具
n Publications 公开出版物
n Events 事件----companies can draw attention to new products or
other company activities by arranging special events like new
conference, on-linechats, seminars, exhibitions, sports and cultural
sponsorships that will reach the target public.
n News 新闻
n Speeches 演讲
n Public-service activities 公 益 活 动 ----companies can build
goodwill by contributing money and time to good causes.
n Identity media 形象识别媒体----to attract and spark（鼓舞）
recognition, the firm’s visual identity is carried by its logo, stationery（
文具）, brochures, signs business forms, business cards, Web site,
buildings, uniforms, and dress code（制服标记）.
1) Establishing the marketing objectives 建立营销目标
MPR can build awareness of a product, service, person, organization or
an idea; add credibility by communicating a message in an editorial
context（通过社论性的报道增加传播信息的可信度）; boost sales
force and dealer enthusiasm and hold down promotion costs because it
costs less than media advertising.
2) Choosing message and vehicles 选择公关信息和载体
The MPR expert must identify or develop interesting stories to tell
about the product. If there are few stories, the expert should propose
newsworthy events to sponsor as a way of stimulating media coverage
(应安排有新闻价值的事件从而吸引媒体报道)。
3) Implementing and evaluating the plan 执行和评估计划
The easiest measure is the number of exposures obtained in the media
（在媒体暴露的次数）; a better measure would be changes in product
awareness, comprehension, or attitude resulting from the MPR campaign
(after allowing for the effect of other promotional tools（考虑了其他促
销工具的影响之后). The most satisfactory measure is sales-and-profit
impact, allowing the company to determine its return（回报） on MPR
investment.
Microsoft and Window 95 Microsoft’s campaign launching Windows
95 was an MPR success story. No paid ads for Windows 95 had appeared
by August 24, 1995, the launch day. Yet everyone knew about it! The
Wall Street Journal estimated that 3,000 headlines, 6,852 stories, and
over 3 million words were dedicated to Windows 95 from July 1 to
August 24. Microsoft teams around the world executed attentiongrabbing(抓住注意) publicity. Microsoft hung a 600-foot Windows 95
banner from Toronto’s CN Tower. The Empire State Building in New
York was bathed(粉刷成) in the red, yellow and green color of the
Windows 95 logo. Microsoft paid The London Times to distribute free its
entire daily run of 1.5 million copies to the public. By the end of the first
week, U.S sales alone were $108 million, not bad for a $90 product. The
lesson is clear: Good advance PR can be much more effective than
millions of dollars spent on advertising.
5 Direct marketing
Direct marketing is the use of consumer-direct channels to reach and
deliver goods and services to customers without intermedediaries. The
channels include direct mail, telemarketing, interactive TV, Web sites and
mobile devices. They share four distinctive characteristics. They are:
l Nonpublic (非公共性）--the message is normally addressed to a
specific person;
l Customized (定制化）--the message can be prepared to appeal to
the addressed individual;
l Up-to-date (即时化）--a message can be prepared very quickly);
l Interactive (互动性）--the message can be changed depending on
the person’s response.
6 Personal Selling
Personal selling has three distinctive qualities:
l Personal confrontation (it involves an immediate and interactive
relationship between two or more persons);
l Cultivation (it permits all kinds of relationships to spring up,
ranging from a matter-of-fact selling relationship to a deep personal
friendship);
l Response (it makes the buyer feel under some obligation fro having
listened to the sales talk)