Transcript Marketing Research

Marketing Research
Aaker, Kumar, Day
Ninth Edition
Instructor’s Presentation Slides
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Chapter Eleven
Attitude Measurement
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Attitude Measurement
 Used to understand and influence behavior since:
 Concept exists that attitudes lead to behavior

More feasible to ask questions on attitudes than to observe and
interpret behavior
 Capacity for diagnosis and explanation

Learn which features of a new product concept are acceptable or
unacceptable

Measure the perceived strengths and weaknesses of competitive
alternatives
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What Are Attitudes?
 Mental states used by individuals to structure the way they
perceive their environment and guide the way they respond
to it
 Components of attitude:
 Cognitive or Knowledge component
 Affective or Liking component
 Intention or Action component
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Cognitive or Knowledge Component
Represents:
 A person’s information about an object
 Awareness of existence of the object
 Beliefs about the characteristics or attributes of the
object
 Judgments about the relative importance of each of the
attributes
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Affective or Liking Component

Summarizes a person’s overall feelings toward an
object, situation, or person on a scale of like-dislike or
favorable-unfavorable

When there are several alternatives, liking is
expressed in terms of preference for one alternative

Preference measured by asking which alternative is
“most preferred” or “first choice,” which is the
“second choice,” and so on
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Intention or Action Component
 Refers to a person’s expectations of future behavior toward an
object
 Intentions are usually limited to a distinct time period that
depends on buying habits and planning horizons
 Incorporates information about a respondent’s ability or
willingness to pay for the object, or otherwise take action
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Concept of Measurement
 Standardized process of assigning numbers or other
symbols to certain characteristics of objects of interest,
according to pre-specified rules
Characteristics for Standardization
 One-to-one correspondence between the symbol and the
characteristic in the object that is being measured
 Rules for assignment should be invariant over time and the
objects being measured
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Scaling
 Process of creating a continuum on which objects are
located according to the amount of the measured
characteristic possessed
 Type of scales:
 Nominal
 Ordinal
 Interval
 Ratio
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Nominal Scale
 Objects are assigned to mutually exclusive, labeled categories
 No necessary relationships among categories
 No ordering or spacing are implied
 Only possible arithmetic operation is a count of each category
Are you
1) Caucasian
2) African-American
3) Hispanic
4) Asian
5) Other
Are you a resident of Connecticut?
Yes
No
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Ordinal or Rank Scale
 Ranks objects or arranges them in order by some common
variable
 Does not provide information on how much difference there is
between objects
 Arithmetic operations are limited to statistics such as median
or mode
Rank your preferences for the following
attributes in making a car purchase decision
Price
-----------
Safety
-----------
Design
-----------
Fuel economy ------------
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Interval Scale
 Numbers used to rank objects also represent equal
increments of the attribute being measured
 Differences can be compared
 Entire range of statistical operations can be employed for
analysis
On a scale of 1 to 7, how would you rate the performance of
natural gas as home heating fuel in terms of reliability of supply?
(1 being least reliable and 7 being most reliable)
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Ratio Scale
 Type of interval scale with meaningful zero point
 Possible to say how many times greater or smaller one object
is than another
 Only scale that permits comparisons of absolute magnitude
How old are you? _________
What is your zip code?______
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Types of Scales and Their Properties
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Attitude Rating Scales
 Present a respondent with a continuum of numbered
categories that represent the range of possible attitude
adjustments
 Classified as:
 Single item scales
 Multiple item scales
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Classification of Attitude Scales
Attitude Scales
Single-Item
Scales
Itemized
Category
Scales
Comparative
Scales
Semantic
Differential
Scale
Associative
Scales
Paired
Comparison
Scales
Q-sort
Scales
Rank Order
Scales
Multi-Item
Scales
Continuous
Scales
Constant Sum
Scales
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Pictorial
Scales
Likert
Scales
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Thurstone
Scales
Stapel
Scales
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Single Item Scales
 Only have one item to measure a construct
 Types of Single item scales
 Itemized-category scale
 Comparative
 Rank-order
 Q-sort
 Pictorial
 Constant sum
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Itemized-category Scales
 Respondent selects from a limited number of categories
________
_________
_________
_________
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Very Satisfied
Quite Satisfied
Somewhat Satisfied
Not at all Satisfied
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Comparative Scale
 A judgment comparing one object, concept, or person
against one another
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Rank-order Scales
 Respondent compares one item with another or a group of
items against each other and ranks them
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Q-sort Scaling
 Respondents sort comparative characteristics into normally
distributed groups
 Ten or more groups increases accuracy of results
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Pictorial Scales
 Various categories of the scale are depicted pictorially
 Thermometer Scale
 Funny faces scale
 Format must be comprehensible to respond and allow
accurate response
Like very much
100
75
50
25
0
Dislike very much
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Types of Single Item Scales (Contd.)
Paired-Comparison Scales
 The brands to be rated are presented two at a time, so each brand in
the category is compared once to every other brand
 Brands are rated on a given number of points that are then divided
between the two brands on the basis of respondents’ preferences
 Frame of reference is always the other brand being tested; these
brands may change over time
Compare
 A and B
 A and C
 A and D
 B and C
 B and D
 C and D
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Constant-sum Scale
 Respondents allocate a fixed number of rating points
among serial objects to reflect relative preference
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Designing Single Item Scales
Decisions regarding form and structure:
 Number of scale categories
 Types of poles used in the scale
 Strength of the anchors
 Labeling of the categories
 Balance of the scale
Balanced
Unbalanced
Very good
______
Excellent
______
Good
______
Very Good
______
Fair
______
Good
______
Poor
______
Fair
______
Very Poor
______
Poor
______
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Multiple-item Scales
 Developed to measure a sample of beliefs toward the
attitude objects and combine the set of answers into an
average score
 Types of multiple-item scales:
 Likert scale
 Thurstone scales
 Semantic-Differential Scales
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Likert Scale
 Requires respondent to indicate degree of agreement or
disagreement with a variety of statements related to the
attitude object
 Also called Summated Scale since scores on individual items
are summed to give total score for respondents
 Usually consists of item part and evaluative part
 Likert scale Is uni-dimensional
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Likert Scale – Example
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Thurstone Scales
 Also known as the method of equal-appearing intervals since
objective is to obtain a unidimensional scale with interval
properties
Step 1: Generate a large number of statements or adjectives
reflecting all degrees of favorableness toward the attitude
objects
Step 2: A group of judges is given this set of items and asked to
classify them according to their degree of favorableness or
unfavorableness
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Thurstone Scales (contd.)
Advantages
 Easy to administer
 Requires minimum instructions
Limitations
 Time consuming
 Expensive to construct
 Not as much diagnostic value as a Likert scale
 Values depend on the attitudes of the original judges
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Semantic-Differential Scale
 Respondents rate each attribute object on a number of five or
seven-point rating scales bounded by polar adjectives or
phrases
 With bipolar scale, the midpoint is a neutral point
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Semantic-Differential Scale (contd.)
 Pairs of objects or phrases selected must be meaningful in
market being studied and correspond to product/service
attributes
 Rotate negative pole on either side to avoid "halo" effect
 Category increments are treated as interval scales so group
mean values can be computed for each object on each scale
 May also be analyzed as a summated rating scale
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Profile Analysis
 Application of semantic differential scale
 Plot mean ratings for each object on each scale for visual comparison
 Overall comparison of brands hard to grasp with many brands and
attributes
 Not all attributes are independent
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Stapel Scales
 Uses one pole rather than two opposite poles
 Respondents select a numerical response category
 High positive score reflects good fit between adjective and
object
 Easy to administer and construct
 No need to assure bipolarity
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Associative Scaling
 Most effective for markets where respondent is
knowledgeable only about a small subset of a large number
of choices
 Appropriate to choice situations that involve a sequential
decision process
 Best suited to market tracking where the emphasis is on
understanding shifts in relative competitive positions
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Continuous Rating Scales
 Respondents rate objects by placing a mark at appropriate
position on a line running from one extreme of the criterion
variable to the other
 Also called graphical rating scales
 Easy to construct
 Scoring is cumbersome and unreliable
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General Guidelines For Developing A
Multiple-Item Scale
Determine clearly what you are going to measure
Generate as many items as possible
Ask experts in the field to evaluate the initial pool of items
Determine the type of attitudinal scale to be used
Include some items that will help in the validation of the scale
Administer the items to an initial sample
Evaluate and refine the items
Optimize the scale length
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Choosing An Attitudinal Scale
Problems in choosing a scale:
 Different techniques with different strengths and
weaknesses
 Virtually any technique can be adapted to the
measurement of any one of the attitude components
Researchers’ choice shaped by:
 The specific information required
 Adabtability of the scale to the data collection method
and budget constraints
 Compatibility of the scale with the structure of the
respondent’s attitude
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Accuracy of Attitude Measurements
Validity: An attitude measure has validity if it measures what it
is supposed to measure
 Face or consensus Validity
 The extent to which the content of a measurement scale appears to tap all
relevant facets of the construct
 Criterion Validity
 Based on empirical evidence that the attitude measure correlates with
other “criterion” variables
 Concurrent validity
 Two variables are measured at the same time
 Predictive validity
 The attitude measure can predict some future event
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Accuracy of Attitude Measurements (Cont.)
 Convergent validity
 A form of construct validity that represents the association
between the measured construct and measures of other
constructs with which the construct is related on theoretical
grounds
 Discriminant validity
 A form of construct validity that represents the extent to which
the measured construct is not associated with which the
construct is related on theoretical grounds
 Construct Validity
 A scale evaluation criterion that relates to the underlying
question "what is the nature of the underlying variable or
construct measured by the scale?"
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Accuracy of Attitude Measurements (Contd.)
Reliability
 The consistency with which the measure produces the same
results with the same or comparable population
Sensitivity
 Extent to which ratings provided by a scale are able to
discriminate between the respondents who differ with respect to
the construct being measured
Generalizability
 Refers to the ease of scale administration and interpretation in
different research settings and situations
Relevancy
 Relevance = reliability * validity
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Scales in Cross-national Research
Responses Can Be Affected by:
 Low literacy and educational levels
 Culture; semantic differential scale is closest to pan-cultural
scale
 Adapting response formats, particularly their calibration, for
specific countries and cultures
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