Transcript Darwin`s Voyage

生物科學史
階段報告 2
健康照護博士班
護理組 葉莉莉
近代生物學的研究主題
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生源論
構造與生命現象
生物個體發育
進化論
遺傳與優生學
Theodosius Dobzhansky (1900-1975)
Nothing in Biology Makes Sense
Except in the Light of Evolution
沒有一件事可以在
不參照其歷史的情況下
被完全理解！！
演化論之歷史意義
---此問題具有
最長的時間尺度
蘇俄 Geneticist
演化論在生物學中的地位
為何與如何？
 為何植物會朝向有陽光的地方生長？
 為何植物的祖先演化出尋光生長的能力？
演化論者企圖型構終極之解釋
（phylogenetic explanation）
歐陽敏譯（2000）生物演化的哲學思維.台北：韋伯。
Evolution's historical roots
Ancient Greeks
Thales (~624-546 BC)
He proposed the first naturalistic
cosmology in which the cosmos arose
from water
http://members.iinet.net.au/~sejones/pe04hist.html#hstryrtsncntgrksmpdcls
Evolution's historical roots
Ancient Greeks
Anaximander (~611-546 BC)
Thales' student ：proposed
"a complete theory of evolution,"
Life arose out of a primordial mud, producing
animals, plants and then human beings.
 Humans were originally formed as fishes,
lived in the water, and then cast off their fishskin, then went up and lived on dry land.

http://members.iinet.net.au/~sejones/pe04hist.html#hstryrtsncntgrksmpdcls
Evolution's historical roots
Ancient Greeks
Empedocles (~495-435 BC) philosopher and poet
“ The father of the evolution idea "
proposed a theory of abiogenesis,
or spontaneous generation.
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Plants first, and animals later
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Teaching contained theory of the survival of
the fittest, or natural selection“.
http://members.iinet.net.au/~sejones/pe04hist.html#hstryrtsncntgrksmpdcls
Evolution's historical roots
Ancient Greeks
Aristotle (384-322 B.C.)
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Organisms ranged from being
relatively simple to extremely
complex.
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Nature passed from inanimate
objects to plants and then to
animals.
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All living things could be
arranged on a scale of
increasing complexity.
http://www2.evansville.edu/evolutionweb/history.h
tml
Evolution's historical roots
Ancient Greeks
Aristotle (384-322 B.C.)
Great Chain of Being---a "ladder of life" and
each species has an allotted rung along this
ladder.
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Species are fixed or permanent and do not evolve.
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Aristotle's world view was entrenched in the minds of
western philosophers for some two thousand years.
http://www2.evansville.edu/evolutionweb/history.htm
Charles Darwin (1809-1882)
http://www.aboutdarwin.com/pictures/Pictures.html
About Darwin…
青春時代的漂泊---對博物學的興趣

與美國總統林肯同年、月、日誕生。

父親是醫生，母親是陶工的女兒。祖父伊拉斯莫斯．達
爾文是名醫兼博物學家及詩人。
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少年時非優等生，熱衷於採集植物及昆蟲，對希臘語及
拉丁語不感興趣。
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父親本想讓其學習法律 愛丁堡學醫 (對醫不感興趣，
見習外科手術嚇得魂不附體)
劍矯大學學做牧師 在
Henslow指導下，閱讀許多動植物書籍。
航海歷史記事
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1405 鄭和下西洋（印度.阿拉伯.非洲）
1492 哥倫布發現美洲
1498 葡萄牙人至印度
1517 葡萄牙人至廣州
1519-1522 麥哲倫航行世界
1624 荷蘭人佔領台灣
1831-1836 達爾文航海記
生物學研究有成就之航海船
The Endeavour(竭力號)—1768
Jams Banks(1743-1820)
The Investigator(調查號)-1801
Robert Brown
The Beagle(小獵犬號)-1831-1836
Charles Darwin(1809-1882) ，出航時僅22歲
The Challenger(挑戰者號)-1872-1876
Charle W. Thompson(1830-1882)
http://www.unbf.ca/psychology/likely/voyage/falkland.htm
Darwin’s Voyage (1831-1836)
小獵犬號其他任務

量測智利、秘魯的海岸和太平洋島嶼
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利用環繞地球的機會鑑定精密計時計--供天文觀測用，可決定經度，是當時天文學、
大地測量學的重要課題。

送回初航時由火地島帶往英國的三位原住民。
Darwin and Beagle’s Voyage
出航
 許多襯衫、拖鞋、衣物
 手槍、步槍、照相機
(1841)
 書籍---西班牙書、希臘遺囑
Lyell’s Principle of Geology (1830-1833)三卷
Milton’s Poems
Darwin’s Voyage (1831-1836)
•242噸之船
•備有一帆船
及2補鯨小
船，76名工
作人員
Darwin’s Voyage
劍橋大學植物學教授--John Henslow
船長--海軍上校Robert Fitz-Roy (比Darwin大四歲)
達爾文與其關係原不融洽 (宗教信仰)
認同達爾文觀察事物的態度和採集博物的積極作風
選定小獵犬號航線上的三個地方以達爾文為名
火地島(Tierra de Fuego)的「達爾文山」和「達
爾文海峽」及澳洲的「達爾文港」
Darwin’s Voyage
(1831.12.27-1836.10.2)
Darwin’s Voyage (1831-1836)
http://www.unbf.ca/psychology/likely/voyage/falkland.htm
Darwin’s Voyage (1831-1836)
The Voyage Home
Africa
Australia
Darwin’s Voyage
到達南美洲積極採集標本

l832年l月6日抵達加那利群島的田內瑞非島，7月
26日到達烏拉圭的孟都
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此後兩年往返於此地和南美洲南瑞，量測拉布拉
他河南方、南美洲東海岸和南端等地方。
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達爾文數次離船，前往阿根廷的布蘭加灣和布宜
諾斯艾利斯、拉布拉他河下游流域、巴塔哥尼亞、
福克蘭群島、合恩角附近等地採集旅行。
Darwin’s Voyage
很久以前，草原曾是巨型動物的棲息地

達爾文在由布蘭加灣往布宜諾斯艾利斯的旅途中，
發現巨獸化石：大樹懶….，已絕跡的馬，厚皮獸
的牙齒，箭齒獸的化石等。
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曾是巨獸出沒的草原，只剩侏儒般的小型動物，
造成如此大變化的原因何在？
達爾文心中產生大疑問！！
Darwin’s Voyage
智利大地震對達爾文是一大震撼
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為了探查智利海岸， l835年2月8日到達智利的
巴第瓦。2月20日地震，約持績2分鐘。
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3月4日船停靠巴第瓦和法耳巴拉索之間的康塞
普森。此地很接近2月20日大地震的震央，幾
乎所有房屋都倒塌，海岸地區尚留有地面隆起
數公尺的痕跡。
Darwin’s Voyage
達爾文在安地斯山脈中確定Lyell主張的正確性
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Lyell (l797-l875)於l830-1833出版「地質學原理」，航海中
常閱讀。
該書以蘇格蘭地質學家哈頓(l726-l797）的「均變說」為根
據---地球表面常發生由空氣和水造成的風化和侵蝕；地震
及火山爆發等現象，有時能將海底變成高山，此學說所需
耍的只是十分悠久的地球年齡。
安地斯山脈數千公尺高的地層中，發現中生代（距今2億
5000萬到6500萬年前）淺海中的貝類化石。表示海底徐徐
隆起成為山脈，而且含有貝類化石的地層厚達數千公尺，
顯示最初形成時是位於數千公尺深的海底，也就是說地殼
在很長的一段時間內時而沈陷，時而隆起數千公尺。
A page from
Darwin’s
notebook
Darwin’s Voyage
「烏龜之島」加拉巴哥群島上發現很多新品種

1835.9抵加拉巴哥群島。群島多無珊瑚礁，也沒有椰子樹，
且降雨量少，此群島中南、北方島嶼生態有些不同。

「加拉巴哥」是西班牙語「大龜」的意思，達爾文遇見重
100公斤以上的巨龜，長1公尺以上的鬣蜥科動物，且分為
棲息於海岸地區的永棲型和在內陸活動的陸棲型。

此群島遠離大陸，許多生物與其他地方大不相同，可見類
似鵜鶘的軍艦鳥、雀科鳥類和可長期不攝餌的爬蟲類。不
僅是鳥類和爬蟲類，其他魚貝類、昆蟲和花木也都不一樣。
達爾文所採集的l5種魚類，還有l6種陸棲貝類中的l5種，都
是新種。
Darwin’s Voyage
加拉巴哥群島上的生物，各自適應島上的自然環境

加拉巴哥群島有13種雀科鳥類，基本上都很相似，但
喙的長短、彎曲角度等特徵，各島鳥類都有些微變化。

由「種」產生「亞種」，由一「種」產生其他「種」
的演化是否是自然淘汰的結果，此問題盤旋於達爾文
腦中。

由自然淘汰而產生新種必須經過很長的歲月，達爾文
在安地斯山脈的觀察，可知地球存在的時間足夠產生
這些演化。
Darwin’s Voyage
加拉巴哥群島的生物--「明顯的差異與微妙類似」之典型

群島上的生物與一千公里外的南美太平洋岸的生物有徵妙
相似處。鷽鳥共有十三種，基本上形態都很相似，但喙的
長度及彎曲度即各不相同。

差異可能和各島上的鳥類食物，如植物種子、毛蟲、昆蟲
等不同有關。如果真是這樣，那麼導致各物種間差異的原
因就很明顯了？

達爾文從觀察加拉巴哥群島的生物所得的靈感，為日後論
生物進化的不朽名著「物種原始」奠下了基礎。
"In these Islands a great loggerhead duck
or goose…... Their wings are too small
and weak to allow flight, but by their aid,
partly swimming and partly flapping the
water, they move very quickly."
If we think of a wing as for flying it is difficult
to understand how it could have evolved,
because a rudimentary wing might hinder
more than helping. If we think of flying as
something that a bird might discover if it
happens already to have a more-or-less wing,
evolved for other purposes, the scenario is
much more plausible.
http://www.unbf.ca/psychology/likely/voyage/falkland.htm
影響達爾文進化論思想的人物
 Buffon
(1707-1778)
The French geologist suggested that the
Earth might be as much as 168,000 years old!
 Charles
Lyell (1797-1875)
 Jean-Baptiste
Lamarck (1744-1829)
Charles Lyell (1797-1875)

「地質學原理」是Lyell承繼十八世紀蘇格蘭地質
學家哈頓（J．Hutton）的理論寫成的。

哈頓認為海底變成高山是因地震或火山爆發而來。
這種自然法則的變動，自古至今都一樣，此學說
稱為「均變說」(uniformitarianism），印證此
學說的證據是地球經長期歲月變動所留下的痕跡。
Charles Lyell (1797-1875)
Earth today result from the cumulative effects of slow
but continuous processes over long expanses of time.
In book Principles of Geology
Lyell affirmed the Earth must be extremely old and that
slow gradual changes over expansive amounts of
time can yield substantial change.
http://www2.evansville.edu/evolutionweb/history.html
Charles Lyell (1797-1875)

達爾文讀「地質學原理」後想「如果地球的年齡
真的這麼老，那麼由微生物演變成溫血動物並非
不可能。」

至此，地球的年齡成為進化論成立的先決條件。
目前科技推斷，地球年齡是四十五億年!!
Jean-Baptiste Lamarck (1744-1829)
法國人
Jean-Baptiste Lamarck (1744-1829)
Philosophie zoologique (1809)

「動物哲學」書中：「羚羊為了吃高大樹木的葉子，長期
以來，一直極力地把頸子伸長而變成長頸鹿。」

這種想法雖已不為今日人們所接受，它卻是點燃達爾文進
化論的導火線。
http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/history/lamarck.htm
Jean-Baptiste Lamarck (1744-1829)

Lamarck viewed evolution as a process of
increasing complexity and "perfection," not
driven by chance; Lamarck did not believe in
extinction: for him, species that disappeared
did so because they evolved into different
species.
http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/history/lamarck.html
Jean-Baptiste Lamarck (1744-1829)
Lamarck’s mechanism for the evolution of life

Use and disuse--- those parts of the body
that are used most to cope with the
environment become larger and stronger
over time, while those that are not used
deteriorate.

The inheritance of acquired characteristics
represents Lamarck's concept of heredity.
http://www2.evansville.edu/evolutionweb/history.html
Jean-Baptiste Lamarck (1744-1829)

the mechanism of Lamarckian evolution is
quite different from that proposed by Darwin,
the predicted result is the same: adaptive
change in lineages, ultimately driven by
environmental change, over long periods of
time.

It is interesting to note that Lamarck cited in
support of his theory of evolution many of
the same lines of evidence that Darwin was to
use in the Origin of Species.
http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/history/lamarck.html
進化論發表之歷史敘事
Charles Darwin (1809-1882)

1837 --- "Notebook on Transmutation of
Species"
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1838 ---reading of Thomas Malthus' (1766-1834)
Essay on the Principle of Population
crystallized his ideas into a coherent
hypothesis. The importance of the
observations he made aboard the Beagle
began to make an impact.
馬爾薩斯的人口論
 馬爾薩斯牧師的「人口論」指出「人口的增加率通常會超過
糧食供給的增加率。」
 達爾文推想：「人類以外的生物應該也是如此。如果是這樣，
那麼同時生下的小動物就註定有些會餓死，但是那一隻該餓
死？大概是不能適應所居環境的要餓死吧！」
 達爾文回想在加拉巴哥群島所看到的鷽鳥。本來都是同種，
相互間可交配繁殖，為了適應各島的特殊環境而發生變異，
且只有這些能隨著各島環境而產生變異的鳥才能活下來。像
這樣由一種而變為多種的現象，達爾文稱之為「自然淘汰」
Charles Darwin (1809-1882)

1842--- Darwin wrote a "Sketch" on natural
selection which he revised and had copied in
1844 (and retitled "Essay").

January of 1847 he handed Hooker a fair
copy of the 231 page manuscript to read and
comment upon.
http://www.inform.umd.edu/PBIO/darwin/darwin01.html
Alfred Russel Wallace (1823-1913)

1848-1852 -- in the tropical jungles of Brazil (Amazon
and Rio Negro rivers)
海上災難，船失火，所收集之標本多付之一炬

1853 --Travels on the Amazon and Rio Negro
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1854 to 1862---'Malay Archipelago' or East Indies (now
Malaysia and Indonesia), to collect specimens and
study nature.
Over the next eight years, he made the great voyage
which led to his formulation of the theory of Natural
Selection.
http://www.iol.ie/~spice/alfred.htm
"Truth is born into this world only with pangs
and tribulations, and every fresh truth is
received unwillingly. ….."
Alfred Russel Wallace 1823-1913
1902 80歲
Darwin & Wallace

In February of 1858, Wallace was bed-ridden and
suffering from an attack of malaria. Ill and fevered, he
drafted his ideas on "the survival of the fittest" during
a single evening. He worked over the draft the next
two evenings with the idea of sending it to Darwin.

On 9 March 1858 he mailed his letter by mail-boat
from the island of Ternate with the request that if
Darwin thought the ideas worthy that he send the
letter on to Lyell.
http://www.inform.umd.edu/PBIO/darwin/darwin01.html
Darwin & Wallace

Upon seeing Wallace's paper, Darwin realized
he was about to be scooped, and decided to
end the 20-year delay in publishing his own
theory.

Wallace's paper and Darwin's various notes
and correspondence on the subject were read
at the same Linnean Society meeting, in
London on July 1, 1858. The next year, Darwin
published On the Origin of Species.
http://www.strangescience.net/wallace.htm
Darwin & Wallace
If ever a scientist didn't get his fair share of the
glory, it was Alfred Russel Wallace.

Wallace commented that his greatest
achievement had been to prompt Darwin to
publish his own theory.

He wrote more than 20 books, and roughly 700
articles and published letters.
http://www.strangescience.net/wallace.htm
Darwin's theory of evolution

1859 --- On the Origin of Species by Means
of Natural Selection
Darwin admitted that all the leading
paleontologists were against his theory
because it was not supported
by the fossil evidence.
http://members.iinet.net.au/~sejones/pe04hist.html#hstryrtsncntgrksmpdcls
達爾文演化論之主張
 模式主張
所有地球生物皆系譜性的相關，
生命形成一棵樹，時間若回溯夠久，
所有同時期之物種皆有共同的祖先。
 歷程主張
生命形式中所見之多樣性的基本成因即為天擇
以上皆非達爾文之原創見！！
歐陽敏譯（2000）生物演化的哲學思維.台北：韋伯。
Darwin's theory of evolution

The strength of Darwin's theory ---its explanation for why species change and
why they are adapted to their surroundings.

Mechanism of evolution --- natural selection.

Survival in the struggle for existence is not
random, but depends in part on the heredity
constitution of individuals.
http://www2.evansville.edu/evolutionweb/history.html
Mechanisms of Microevolution
Mutation
Migration (or gene flow)
Genetic drift
Natural selection
天擇演化的三個基本組成要素
天擇演化需有可遺傳之適應度變化
（heritable variation in fitness)



被考慮的客體需要有變化存在
如斑馬奔跑之速度一樣，選擇無以發生作用！！
變化需蘊含適應度之變化
若奔跑速度對生存/生犆無影響，天擇不會有利於
速度快之斑馬
特徵需可遺傳
無法遺傳則不會改變下一代之組合
歐陽敏譯（2000）生物演化的哲學思維.台北：韋伯。
Darwin’s
Down House
in London
Herbert Spencer
1820-1903
A Victorian
biologist and
philosopher
Herbert Spencer
Social Darwinism

A System of Synthetic Philosophy (1862-1893
九卷)-- He saw evolution as the change from a
homogeneous condition that was innately
unstable, to a heterogenous and stable one.

He highlighted four main concepts: Growth,
Differentiation, Integration and Adaptation.
Herbert Spencer

The Developmental Hypothesis in 1852, 7 years
before Darwin's Origin Of Species!

It was Spencer who first popularized the term
"Evolution", and few people outside the field
realize that the "survival of the fittest" was
actually coined by Spencer!
進化論已是絕對的真理嗎？
進化論創立140餘年，從對一些植物、動物形態的
觀察得出的推論，並沒有化石證據顯示有物種間
過渡類型存在。其誕生之初，是作為一種假說被
提出來。

In the latter half of the 20th century,
evolutionary theory completely unraveled.

On all fronts it had become clear that the
evidence simply did not exist.
http://www.pathlights.com/ce_encyclopedia/20hist04.htm
進化論爭議
在餐桌上放一袋麵粉，一盒巧克力，一袋糖和幾個
雞蛋；等到許多意外事故相繼發生完了以後，你
就發現餐桌上擺著一盆可口的巧克力蛋糕？？

氨基酸分子偶然地產生出最低級的生物--- 海藻；
海藻在數不清的“偶然”機會後，變出了低級植
物和動物。又不知經過了多少“偶然”機會後，
低級動物變成了魚類，兩棲類，爬行類，哺乳類，
最後是靈長類的猴子--- 據說它就是人類最直接的
祖先。
進化論爭議
Special meetings
1960s-- The Wistar Institute (an important scientific
gathering, convened in Philadelphia in 1966)

Scientists arose and discussed why the theory just
did not work in their field.

Mathematicians stood up and explained why it was
mathematically impossible.

Additional meetings were held in 1969, 1980, 1981,
and 1984.
http://www.pathlights.com/ce_encyclopedia/20hist04.htm
進化論爭議
古生物學--凌亂的化石證據
 「證明進化論真確性的最直接證據，必
然來自化石的記錄。」然而，化石證據
完全未顯示生物是以科學家所聲稱的過
程進化而來。
達爾文在《物種起源》書中論及化石時，
標題為〈不完美的地質記錄〉
進化論爭議
古生物學--凌亂的化石證據

進化論常用的進化譜系證據是脊椎動物序列
(Vertebrate Sequence)，包括從魚類到兩棲類、
爬蟲類、鳥類、哺乳動物、直至人的進化。

這些過程長達數億年。惟化石記錄只告訴我們生物
各從其類，並未說明牠們之間的演變關係。
http://www.thinkerstar.com/lu/essays/why.html
進化論爭議
Mendel’s principles of heredity

Everything born is like its parents. ….Guinea
pig babies will always be guinea pigs; they
will not be crows, lizards, or pine trees.
http://www.pathlights.com/ce_encyclopedia/20hist04.htm
進化論爭議
DNA

The discovery of DNA, in the 1950s, shook
the foundations of evolutionary theory.

It would be impossible for a mother mouse to
produce a fox or rabbit…. No trans-species
changes were possible.
http://www.pathlights.com/ce_encyclopedia/20hist04.htm
突變也沒辦法解釋進化論
「突變」被稱為是進化論的證據之一
(以突變補化石記錄不足)
 突變使支配遺傳的因子發生變化，自然選擇保留
有益的特徵，累積許多代後便進化成新品種。
 多數突變是隱性，累積在遺傳因子內，屢次在後代出
現造成殘廢，遺傳學家也承認累積的遺傳因子負荷促
成了退化、衰老和死亡。
http://www.thinkerstar.com/lu/essays/why.html
突變也沒辦法解釋進化論

突變會造成遺傳疾病--貧血、色盲、血友病、聾
啞、糖尿病、兔唇、侏儒症等。

突變也許能改變舊東西，卻不能創造新品種

我們由各從其類的化石記錄看出生物各有其品種、
變異有限，絕不會越過本身族類的範圍而變成其
他東西。
http://www.thinkerstar.com/lu/essays/why.html
進化論爭議
進化論是「科學想像」不是「科學事實」？？

「物種原始」是用歸納法加上想像寫成的(非依嚴
謹科學實驗得到結果)。

達爾文只是喜愛生物的業餘博物蒐集者，並非科
班出身的生物學家，他的進化學說只能代表個人
見解，無法提供有力線索。
http://www.thinkerstar.com/lu/essays/why.html
進化論爭議
why is it still being taught everywhere?
(1) The only alternative is creation, and many
are unwilling to accept it.
(2) The organized evolutionary forces,
controlling the science foundations,
education associations, accreditation
agencies, and all the rest—tenaciously cling
to their beloved theory.
http://www.pathlights.com/ce_encyclopedia/20hist04.htm
The Influence of Natural Theology
Natural theology is the branch of philosophy
concerned with what can be known or
rationally believed about God on the basis of
human reason (18-19世紀)

God's plan -- species were created and
designed by God.
http://www2.evansville.edu/evolutionweb/history.html