Transcript File
Psychology in Everyday Life David Myers Worth Publishers, © 2011 Gender and Sexuality Chapter 4 Gender and Sexuality Gender Development How are We Alike? How Do We Differ? The Nature of Gender: Our Biology The Nurture of Gender: Our Culture Gender and Sexuality: Overview of Topics Human Sexuality The Physiology of Sex The Psychology of Sex Sexual Orientation Environment and Sexual Orientation Biology and Sexual Orientation Gender and Sexuality: Overview of Topics An Evolutionary Explanation of Human Sexuality Gender Differences in Sexuality Natural Selection and Mating Preferences Critiquing the Evolutionary Perspective Thinking About Gender, Sexuality, and Nature-Nurture Interaction Defining Gender Your biological sex is the basis for defining your gender, the characteristics our society defines as male or female How are the two genders alike? How are they different? How much does biology play a role in gender characteristics? TRUE OR FALSE People could change their sexual orientation if they wanted to FALSE Scientific evidence suggests that sexual orientation is something that people are born with or develop fairly early in life. The evidence is sufficiently clear that the American Psychological Association, American 1 2 LGBTQ CULTURES Psychiatric Association, American Medical Association, and many other professional organizations have taken the position that therapies designed to change people’s sexual orientation (often called reparative or conversion therapy) are unethical (American Psychiatric Association, 1998; Zucker, 2006). For many people, awareness of sexual orientation first emerges in childhood or early adolescence prior to any sexual experience. TRUE OR FALSE Gay men want to look like women, and lesbians want to look like men. FALSE It is not possible to tell if someone is a gay man or a lesbian from observing how they look. Some gay men and some lesbians do dress or have behaviors that are more typical of the other sex. Some heterosexual women or men also dress or behave more typically as the other sex. However, these patterns of dress or behavior do not come from a desire to be or to look like the other sex. Instead, these choices are based on personal preference and refusal to conform to the stereotypes or social expectations for male or female dress and behavior. TRUE OR FALSE Bisexuality is just a phase. FALSE Many well-intentioned persons may tell bisexual people that they are just going through a phase and will eventually find their true identities as gay or lesbian. This stems from the stereotype that bisexuality does not exist and that it is a transitional point on the way to homosexual identity (Mohr & Rochlen, 1999). Some people do indeed label themselves as bisexual early in their 8 LGBTQ CULTURES coming-out process and then later identify as gay or lesbian, but just as many people first label themselves as gay or lesbian and then later as bisexual (Rust, 2000). This myth could apply to all LGBTQ people. To tell some persons that they are “going through a phase,” whether they tell you they are LGBT or Q, is to trivialize the very difficult process of sexual and gender identity formation and to deny the reality of their lived experience. There is considerable evidence that many people are bisexual in their sexual behavior, and that some of them adopt a bisexual identity that is stable throughout their lifetimes (Diamond, 2005), just as lesbian, gay, and transgender people adopt stable identities. Gender Similarities and Differences Men and women are alike: No differences in intelligence or senses. Of the 46 chromosomes, 45 are unisex There are also many differences. Examples: Age of puberty, lifespan, body fat, muscle mass, height. Women are more emotional, more altruistic, more prone to depression and anxiety Men are more prone to suicide, alcoholism, color-blindness, autism, and ADHD Gender Differences in Aggression Men express themselves and behave in more aggressive ways than do women. This gender gap in (physical) aggression appears in many cultures and at various ages. • Men are arrested for murder 10 times more than women in the US • Fighting, warring, and hunting are primarily male activities throughout the world Gender and Social Power In most societies, men are socially dominant and are perceived as such. In 2009, men accounted for 82% of the seats in the world’s governing parliaments. Men tend to be more directive and authoritarian, women more democratic With age, these gender differences tend to decrease Gender Differences and Social Connectedness Young and old, women are more concerned with social connections (friendships) with people than do men. Men enjoy doing activities side-by-side and talk to others to communicate solutions Women enjoy talking face-to-face, and often talk to explore relationships. As friends, women talk more often and more openly The Nature of Gender: Our Biology Biology influences gender in two ways: 1. Genetically, through differing sex chromosomes 2. Physiologically, from different concentrations of sex hormones Evolutionary psychology: the study of how our behavior and mind have changed in adaptive ways over time through the process of natural selection Biological Influence on Gender: Genes Your sex was determined by your father’s contribution the the 23rd pair of chromosomes – the sex chromosomes X chromosomes are found in both men and women. Females have two, men have an X and a Y. Y chromosomes are found only in males Biological Influence on Gender: Prenatal Development At about the 7th week after conception, the Y chromosome causes the testes to develop and to produce testosterone, the most important male sex hormone. Key period: fourth and fifth prenatal months Sex hormones bathe the fetal brain and influence its wiring High fetal testosterone can produce females with more masculine muscular and skeletal features Hormones and Sexual Behavior Testosterone: main male sex hormone Estrogens: main female sex hormones Sex hormones are important at several stages: During prenatal period, they direct development as males or females During puberty, a surge in sex hormones ushers us into adolescence As adults, sex hormones help activate sexual behavior The Psychology of Sex Hormones like testosterone are like fuel in a car – without the right levels of hormones, there is no drive (sexual interest and sexual response). However, our sexual motivation requires more than hormones, it requires stimuli: External Stimuli Imagined Stimuli Both involve images and stories External Stimuli Studies confirm that men, and to a lesser extent, women become sexually aroused when exposed to erotic material. Repeated exposure to sexual images can reduce the erotic response and the attraction to one’s partner. Imagined Stimuli Our imagination can influence sexual arousal and desire. People with spinal cord injuries and no genital sensation can still feel sexual desire. 95% of men and women report having sexual fantasies. Men fantasize about sex more often, more physically, and less romantically. Biological Influence on Gender: Brain Differences • Part of frontal lobe, used for verbal fluency, is thicker in females • Part of parietal cortex, used for space perception, is thicker in males Sexual Differentiation Sexual differentiation is not only biological, but also psychological and social. However, genes and hormones play a very important role in defining gender, especially in altering the brain and influencing gender differences as a result. The Nature of Gender: Our Culture • Our culture shapes our gender roles — expectations of how men and women are supposed to behave. • Gender roles can smooth social relationships, and vary from culture to culture Gender Identity — one’s sense of being male or female. Transgendered Individuals Some individuals are transgendered – their gender identity feels mismatched with their biological sex Stu Rassmussen, the mayor of Silverton, Oregon, is openly transgendered How do we learn to be male or female? • • • Social Learning Theory proposes that we learn gender behavior like any other behavior—reinforcement, punishment, and observation. However, social learning may not fully explain gender typing – some children are more attuned than others to traditional gender roles Children form gender schemas at an early age – frameworks for understanding malefemale characteristics Theories of Gender Typing Sexually Transmitted Infections Rates of STIs (aka STDs) are rising Two-thirds of infections occur in people under 25 Partners “Phantom” partners Sexual Orientation Sexual orientation refers to a person’s enduring pattern of sexual attraction toward with members of either their own sex or the other sex. Homosexual Heterosexual Bisexual Sexual Orientation According to one survey (Mosher, 2005), 3 or 4% of men and 1 or 2% of women reporting being exclusively homosexual. Fewer than 1% reported being actively bisexual. Many people surveyed said they have had an occasional homosexual fantasy. As members of a minority who face isolation, discrimination, and ridicule, homosexuals often struggle with how to address their sexual orientation. Sexual Orientation Most psychologists today view homosexuality as neither willfully chosen, nor willfully changed Homosexuality is not, in and of itself, associated with mental disorders or emotional or social problems Homosexuality met with bullying, and harassment, however, can lead to depression and risk of suicide (Sandfort, 2001, Warner, 2004) Environment and Sexual Orientation Homosexuality is NOT linked with problems in a child’s relationships with parents Homosexuality does NOT involve a fear or hatred of people of the other gender Sexual orientation is NOT linked with current levels of sex hormones in the blood As children, most homosexuals were NOT molested or otherwise sexually victimized by an adult homosexuality The bottom line: if there are environmental factors that influence sexual orientation, we do not yet know what they are. Same-Sex Attraction in Other Species A number of animal species are devoted to same-sex partners, suggesting that homosexuality exists in the animal world. Biology and Sexual Orientation Homosexuality is more likely based on biological factors like differing brain centers, genetics, and parental hormone exposure rather than environmental factors. Gay-Straight Brain Differences A cluster of cells in the hypothalamus is reliably larger in heterosexual men than in women and homosexual men (Levay, 1991) Not an “on-off button” for sexual orientation, but an important part of the brain pathway for sexual behavior Other studies have since reported additional gaystraight brain differences Genetic Influence on Sexual Orientation 1. Family: Homosexuality seems to run in families. 2. Twin studies: Identical twins are more likely than fraternal twins to share a homosexual orientation. However, they don’t always do so, suggesting other factors than just genes alone. 3. Fruit flies: Researchers altered a single gene, leading females to act like males during courtship and males to act like females. An Evolutionary Explanation of Human Sexuality Evolutionary Psychology and Human Sexuality Gender Differences in Sexuality Natural Selection and Mating Preferences Critiquing the Evolutionary Perspective Evolutionary Psychology Throughout human history, those with trait characteristics that helped them to survive and reproduce better were more likely to pass on those traits This adaptive process is called natural selection Men who were attracted to young, healthy women produced more offspring, which may explain why men today have eyes for women whose age and features imply fertility Mating Preferences Males look for youthful appearing females in order to pass their genes into the future. Females, on the other hand, look for maturity, dominance, affluence, and boldness in males. Data based on 37 cultures. Gender Differences in Sexuality Men have higher sex drive and are more interested in casual sex Men have a more recreational approach to sex, women have a more relational approach Thus, gay men have more sex than lesbians, but lesbians have married more than gay men (where legal) Natural Selection & Mating Preferences Natural selection has caused males to send their genes into the future by attempting to mate with multiple females since males have lower costs involved with rearing offspring. However, females tend to prefer a mature and caring male because of the higher costs involved with pregnancy and nursing – long-term mates contribute caring and support, giving their offspring greater chances. Critiquing the Evolutionary Perspective Evolutionary psychologists take an effect and work backward to explain it in terms of natural selection. Some worry about the social consequences of the evolutionary view. Are genes our destiny? Are efforts to remake society useless? Culture matters. Socialization can instill values such as monogamy in men or promiscuity in women. Cultural expectations influence mate preferences. Evolutionary Psychologists Reply Evolutionary psychology is not just retrospective; it leads to predictions that can be tested. Evolutionary psychologists remind us how we have adapted, but do not dictate how we ought to be. Humans behavior is less hardwired by our genes than in other species. Rather, we have a tremendous capacity for learning which has helped us survive. Intersex Copyright © 2017 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved.