Transcript Outline
Speciation Outline 1. Speciation – what is it? 2. Reproductive isolation 3. Drift versus Selection 4. Geography of Speciation PLANT OF THE DAY! Camellia sinensis – tea Native to East and South Asia tea consumption dates to the 10th century BC White tea: Wilted and unoxidized Yellow tea: Unwilted and unoxidized, but allowed to yellow Green tea: Unwilted and unoxidized Oolong: Wilted, bruised, and partially oxidized Black tea: Wilted, sometimes crushed, and fully oxidized Pl Speciation: What is it? “Under the BSC, the nebulous problem of ‘the origin of species’ is instantly reduced to the more tractable problem of the evolution of isolating barriers” Coyne and Orr 2004 Speciation: What is it? Speciation refers to the evolution of barriers to gene flow between previously interbreeding populations. These barriers are thought to arise as byproduct of genetic drift or selection. Reproductive Isolation a.k.a. barriers to gene flow Definition: “Biological properties of individuals which prevent the interbreeding of populations that are actually or potentially sympatric” (Mayr 1970). Role: Reduce interspecific gene flow, thereby facilitating the accumulation of genetic differences through drift or selection. Reduced gene flow FEEDBACK LOOP: Increased divergence Barrier Components Prepollination barriers limit the transfer of pollen from individuals of one species to styles of another. Postpollination prezygotic barriers prevent heterospecific pollen from successfully fertilizing ovules. Intrinsic postzygotic barriers result from genetic incompatibilities and are mostly independent of the environment (e.g., hybrid sterility or breakdown) Extrinsic postzygotic barriers result from genotype by environment interactions (e.g., ecological isolation) Ecogeographic Isolation/Immigrant Inviability Ecological divergence often contributes to spatial isolation. This is probably most important reproductive barrier in plants. Helianthus annuus mesic soils H. anomalus sand dune Temporal Isolation Can be seasonal, diurnal, etc. http://lhs2.lps.org/staff/sputnam/Biology/U6Evolution/U6Notes.htm Mechanical Isolation Mechanical isolation occurs because the sexual organs of different species are incompatible. In plants, mechanical isolation often occurs when differences in shape or structure of flower prevent effective pollination. Schiestl and Schlüter 2009 Mechanical Isolation Schiestl and Schlüter 2009 Pollinator Isolation Mimulus cardinalis Mimulus lewisii Bradshaw and Schemske 2003 Mating System Isolation Mimulus guttatus Mimulus nasutus Martin and Willis 2007 Post-pollination, Prezygotic Isolation Conspecific pollen precedence conspecific pollen often outcompetes heterospecific pollen (perhaps due to sexual selection). Pollen-ovule incompatibilities Ramsey et al. 2003 Postzygotic Isolation Hybrid sterility: hybrids have a reduced fertility Hybrid inviability: hybrids have reduced viability Hybrid breakdown: later generation hybrids have reduced viability or fertility Ecological isolation: hybrids have reduced viability or fertility because they are poorly adapted to either parental environment Hybrid pollen sterility Hybrid inviability (Bomblies et al. 2007) All else being equal, early-acting reproductive barriers will contribute more to isolation than late-acting barriers Rieseberg and Blackman 2010 Prezygotic isolation is approximately twice as strong as postzygotic isolation in flowering plants. Postmating barriers tend to be more asymmetrical than premating barriers. Lowry et al. 2008. The strength and genetic basis of reproductive isolating barriers in flowering plants. Phil. Trans. R. Soc. B 363: 3009–3021 Lowry et al. 2008 Two major questions about reproductive barriers: 1. Which reproductive barriers were important during speciation? Coyne and Orr 2004 Two major questions about reproductive barriers: 1. Which reproductive barriers were important during speciation? • e.g. Find out which barriers arise early by looking at incipient species Incipient species are populations that are in the process of diverging to the point of speciation but can still exchange genes Coyne and Orr 2004 Lowry et al. 2008 Two major questions about reproductive barriers: 1. Which reproductive barriers were important during speciation? 2. Which evolutionary forces produced these barriers? Coyne and Orr 2004 Drift versus Selection Laboratory Experiments: Divergent Selection (no gene flow) Taxon Isolation* Reference Drosophila pseudoobscura Drosophila pseudoobscura Drosophila melanogaster Drosophila melanogaster Drosophila Drosophila melanogaster Musca domestica Musca domestica Drosophila willistoni Drosophila melanogaster Drosophila simulans Drosophila mojavensis Drosophila pseudoobscura prezygotic prezygotic prezygotic prezygotic postyzgotic prezygotic prezygotic prezygotic both prezygotic postzygotic prezygotic prezygotic Ehrman, 1964, 1969 del Solar, 1966 Barker & Cummins, 1969 Grant & Mettler, 1969 Robertson, 1966a,b Burnet & Connolly, 1974 Soans et al., 1974 Hurd & Eisenberg, 1975 de Oliveira & Cordeiro, 1980 Kilias et al., 1980 Ringo et al., 1985 Koepfer, 1987 Dodd, 1989 *Prezygotic isolation failed to evolve in four other experiments; postzygotic isolation failed to evolve in one other experiment. From Rice and Hostert 1993 Drift versus Selection Laboratory Experiments: Drift / Population Bottlenecks (no selection and no gene flow) Taxon Isolation Reference Drosophila melanogaster Drosophila pseudoobscura Drosophila melanogaster Drosophila pseudoobscura Drosophila silvestris Drosophila pseudoobscura Drosophila simulans Musca domestica Drosophila pseudoobscura weak prezygotic none none pre (3/8) none pre (1/8) pre (1/8) pre (1/16) pre (4/628) retests (0) none (0/50) none (0/78) Koref-Santibanez et al., 1958 Powel & Morton, 1979 Averhoff & Richardson, 1974 Powell, 1979* Ahearn, 1980 Dodd and Powell, 1985* Ringo et al., 1985* Meffert & Bryant, 1991** Moya et al., 1995 Drosophila melanogaster Drosophila pseudoobscura Rundle et al., 1998 Rundle, 2003 *hybrid base population **not significant after correction for multiple tests From Rice and Hostert 1993 Genetics of Speciation Darwin’s Dilemma: How could something as maladaptive as hybrid sterility or inviability evolve by natural selection? aabb aa Aabb aaBb A1a A2a AAbb aaBB A1A1 A2A2 AaBb two locus model A1A2 one locus model Bateson-Dobzhansky-Muller (BDM) incompatibilities Examples of BDM incompatibilities Phenotype / Organism(s) Genes / Characteristics References Hybrid Seed lethality Arabidopsis PHERES1, a MADS-box gene TTG2, WRKY transcription factor Josefsson et al. 2006 Dilkes et al. 2008 Cytoplasmic male sterility Oryza, Helianthus, Mimulus, etc. > 15 genes cloned / chimeric orfs in mtDNA Hanson & Benolila 2004 Restoration of CMS Maize, Oryza, Petunia, raidish 7 genes cloned; mitochondriatargeting PPR proteins Hanson & Benolila 2004 Hybrid inviability (hybrid necrosis) Arabidopsis, tomato, lettuce Disease resistance genes Bomblies et al. 2007 Kruger et al. 2002 Cytoplasmic male sterility in Petunia hybrida Hybrid necrosis in tomato Genetics of Speciation Speciation genes – genes that contribute to the cessation of gene flow between populations Some generalizations from speciation genes found in plants so far: •Disease resistance genes often involved (e.g., NBS-LRR family) •Loss of function mutations are surprisingly frequent (e.g., PPR genes) •Cytoplasmic factors frequently involved (e.g., CMS) •Divergence mainly due to diversifying selection •Substantial intraspecific variation Rieseberg and Blackman 2010 Geography of Speciation Allopatric (vicariance) Peripatric Parapatric Sympatric m=0 m=0 0 < m < 0.5 m = 0.5 m is the initial level of gene flow Futuyma 2009 Geography of Speciation Allopatric and parapatric speciation are common (Wallace) Sympatric speciation is controversial (Darwin) Datisca glomerata Datisca cannabina Example of allopatric speciation in Datisca http://plants.usda.gov/ Sympatric Speciation Problems: 1.Antagonism between selection and recombination –– recombination breaks up associations between alleles under disruptive natural selection and those causing assortative mating. 2.Sympatric species must coexist. 3.Hard to prove that currently sympatric species have not been allopatric in past. One of the best examples of sympatric speciation is palms on Lord Howe Island Savolainen et al. 2006 Sympatric speciation occurs most easily when traits under disruptive selection (e.g. soil preference) and assortative mating (e.g. flowering time) are correlated genetically. When assortative mating and disruptive selection are combined in the same trait, it is called a magic trait.