Transcript Optical Fibre - Linear Effects

MAKING THE MOST OF YOUR TIME
PROJECT CHOICE
David R. Selviah
Department of Electronic and Electrical Engineering
University College London
E-Mail: [email protected]
Phone: 020 7679 3056
Fax: 020 7388 9325
Good Professional Practice Copyright © 2008 UCL
Outline
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Introduction, Motivation
The 3rd Year Project
Choosing a Project
Daily Activities
Choosing a Subject
Think of your own idea, Course Choices
Choose your supervisor
Define Project with Supervisor
Academics Research Areas Resource
Curriculum Vitae
Checklist, Daily Activities Table
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Introduction
• The purpose of this talk is
• to provide you with a common tutorial experience about
how to choose a project
• to challenge how you might otherwise have chosen a
project and your decision making process
• to give you unified guidelines on how to write a curriculum
vitae (CV)
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Into the Project
• In embarking on a project you will be stepping away from
the educational world you know where
– All equations can be solved analytically
– A function is simple like a cosine or a Gaussian.
– You are told what is important.
– You are provided with comprehensive lecture notes
which contain all the facts to solve the problem.
– You are told which books contain all the answers.
– Your tutor knows the way to solve the problem.
• You will be stepping into the real world where none of this
is true.
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Into the Project
• The project guidelines are at
http://www.ee.ucl.ac.uk/~afernand/projects/3rdYear/ProjGuideStudents.html
• Direct queries to the project co-ordinator :Dr Fernandez
• In the project
– You are in charge giving you freedom but responsibility
– You need to decide what is important
– You need to search for it or develop it.
• The supervisors job is not to tell you what to do next so
don’t expect him to do that.
• It is your job to work out what to do next, knowing the goal
to be achieved.
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Motivation
• You will be spending a fair amount of your time on the
project.
• The project mark is substantial being worth 1/4 of the third
year marks equivalent to 2 courses.
• However, it should also be considered that employers pay
special attention to project work so effectively the project
has a higher weight as far as employers are concerned.
• So it is worth thinking carefully about your choice of
project.
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Motivation
• The only way to carry out a difficult project is to be really
highly motivated to do well and to work hard.
• This type of motivation can only come if the project is
something you really enjoy so that you want to think about
it all the time.
• So make sure you choose a project that motivates you if
you want a good mark.
• Do not expect your supervisor to motivate you by scolding
you if you don’t work hard enough!
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Motivation
• Most students choose an interesting project and enjoy the
experience and look back on it as being one of the most
enjoyable learning experience in the whole of their time at
university.
• Most universities allocate projects to students but we let
you choose.
• It helps you to learn how to make serious decisions and
teaches you to have the responsibility to live with the
consequences.
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Employment Motivation
• When you go for a job interview the first thing the
interviewer is likely to talk about is your project.
• The project is the most similar activity to the company's
working environment.
• They don’t pay you to memorise and take exams!
• They don’t even pay you because you work hard.
• They pay you to produce results and achieve goals by
specified deadlines.
• They expect you to learn whatever is necessary in order to
overcome any obstacle you encounter.
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Employment Motivation
• The project is a learning experience that tries to
approximate the real work situation.
• However, the marking is not just for the results.
• Marks are also given for the whole process of finding the
results as well.
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Employment Motivation
• The interviewer will be very happy if you have done a
project in the same subject area as that of the company as
this shows a continuing interest in this subject.
• However, it is more important that you have carried out a
project well whether it is in the same area or not.
• So you should be thinking about in which subject area you
wish to work.
• A short project is a good way to try out a subject area to
see if it is what you want to do for the rest of your life.
• If you don’t like it you can change to another area when
you apply for a job or when you choose your next project.
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The 3rd Year Project
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A misleading name
It is more like a month project spread out over a year.
Mainly for you to learn how to carry out a project.
Generally of little or no benefit to your supervisor.
You will learn how to interact with a supervisor
– to get the most help
– to get constructive criticism and to accept it positively
– to impress him and so get good marks
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The 3rd Year Project
• You will practice
– “The Scientific Method”.
– The importance of logical deduction
– Debugging a program or circuit or hardware
– Maintaining a positive attitude even when everything is
breaking down or crashing.
– Managing a complex set of tasks in a limited time.
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The 3rd Year Project
• Two of the most useful skills you will practice and enhance
are:
• How to break down a problem or obstacle into a series of
simpler tasks which can then be scheduled and completed
to solve the problem.
• How to search for the required information and knowledge
and to learn it and then use it to solve a problem.
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Questions
• What do you think you should consider in coming to a
decision about which project to do?
• Which lectures have you enjoyed the most?
• Was it because of the subject or the lecturer?
• What did you enjoy before you came here?
• What hobbies did you have before you came here?
• What job do you want to do?
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Choosing a Project
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To complete successfully an enjoyable project you must:
Choose your supervisor well
Choose the daily activities that you want to do
Choose your subject area appropriately
Activity work:
– Decide what order of importance you would put these in
and discuss your decision with your tutor.
– Choose and research your subject area
– Define your project with your supervisor
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Daily activities
• Most students start choosing a project by considering the
subject area.
• The ultimate goal may sound exciting and you may want to
be part of the team trying to achieve that goal.
• Although the subject area may be appealing the actual
work you will be carrying out day to day may not be.
• You will be spending most of your time on the daily
activities such as electronic design, calculation, writing and
debugging computer programs, constructing electrical or
optical experiments or fabrication of devices.
• So you need to consider how much of each of these you
want to do in your project.
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Daily activities
• Activity work: What proportion of each of the following
activities do you want to do in the project? Discuss with
your tutor.
Maths
5%
Design
10 %
Computing
40 %
Electronic Experiments
5%
Optical Experiments
Clean Room Fabrication
40 %
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• Its hard to do maths without a computer to plot graphs of
results.
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Daily activities
• Computing Project
– Can do it any time in the day when you are free.
– Can do it at home if you purchase the software licence
and if it does not require a hardware key - dongle.
• Hardware Project
– Can only do at certain times
– May need to share expensive equipment which may
break down
– May need to purchase components and wait for
delivery.
– Fun and a sense of achievement when experiment
works.
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Choosing a Project Subject
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Look at a list of projects on a web page
Approach supervisor for ideas
Think of your own idea
Choose third year courses and similar project.
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Look on web project list
• Look at http://www.ee.ucl.ac.uk/projects/3rdyr/
• Only a few academics will usually post some projects on
the web page early. Another few will post some projects at
random times later
• So you may not book a project in the hope that a better
project may be posted later.
• If a new project is posted and you don’t see it straight
away someone else may book it.
• There is a temptation to book a project from one posted
early in case all of the others are worse.
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Look on web project list
• Posted projects on the web page encourage students to
visit that academic but not necessarily to do those
projects.
• Usually students agree with supervisors on a project after
a discussion.
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Look at project presentation list
• Look at last years list of student project presentations
which has an address of the form
http://www.ee.ucl.ac.uk/~afernand/Pres2005.html
• You will find there a list of all of the titles of last years
projects with links to abstracts describing them written by
the students themselves.
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Approach Supervisor
• To identify which supervisor might supervise which topic
• Look at the web page http://www.ee.ucl.ac.uk/projects.html
where their interests are listed
• Once you have found an academic arrange a meeting with
them by e-mail or phone, if possible. They may not be
there if you knock on their door
• ASK the academic if they have or can think of any projects
to suit your interests and abilities.
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Approach Supervisor
• Don’t ask him which project would be easiest or the least
work!
• ASK present third year students about their projects and
supervisors.
• ATTEND the third year students project presentations near
the end of term (usually all day on a Wednesday around
15th March)
• This will give you ideas of what projects are available, who
supervises them, how difficult it is to give a good talk and
what the question session is like.
• Very interesting projects are also offered by staff of other
departments: Medical Physics, CS
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Think of your own idea
• An alternative approach would be for you to SUGGEST a
project that you would like to do and ask whether the
academic would agree to supervise it.
• It could be something based on your hobbies such as an
electric guitar chorus pedal, or building a robot, or building
a bat detector.
• You will not find these amongst the academics research
interests although they may have supervised such projects
before and may be willing to do so again.
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Think of your own idea
• Obviously if you suggest an idea it will need to be at the
required academic level to be considered as a 3rd year
project.
• If not your supervisor will reject it or he he may suggest
how it can be modified to meet the required standard.
• Do not assume that you will be able to find anyone who is
willing to supervise a project suggested by you.
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Course Choices
• If you choose the project first then you should ask your
new supervisor for help in choosing courses which will
help your project and which balance effort between the two
terms.
• If you choose the courses first try to balance the number
you attend each term. Then think of a project which
overlaps as much of the course material as possible.
• By doing this you will make a lot less work for yourself as
the courses help the project and vice versa.
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Choose your Supervisor
• An important factor in successful completion of an
enjoyable project is your relationship with your supervisor.
• You have one character and your supervisor another
character.
• You need to choose someone with whom you can work.
• Someone you like or at least respect.
• Certainly someone you can ask for criticism of your work
and from whom you can accept it as a useful way for you
to improve.
• It’s the only way to learn and improve.
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Choose your Supervisor
• Academics are all different characters.
• Do you want a young, energetic, enthusiastic supervisor
who is always pushing you forwards to produce results,
and wants to see you at least once a week to report
progress?
• May be good for students who need motivating.
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Choose your Supervisor
• Do you want a supervisor with a vast experience,
international reputation, large research group who is often
invited to give talks in other countries and so may not be
easy to meet but when you do see him it is tremendously
useful?
• He is likely to have a large research group with Postdocs
and Research Students who can help you on a daily basis.
• Likely to have a lot of very expensive brand new
equipment for experiments.
• Likely to have a lot of money to purchase more equipment
or software.
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Choose your Supervisor
• You may only have seen your supervisor in lectures.
• Many academics are quite different when you meet them
in their offices on a one-to-one basis.
• Students find that some academics who frighten them in
lectures are actually very helpful and friendly on a one-toone basis.
• So don’t judge them just on their appearance in lectures.
• Visit them in their offices first to find out what they are like.
• Ask their project students what they are like.
• See the project presentations on ~15th March.
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Choose your Supervisor
• Booking projects is on a first come first served basis.
• Some supervisors are very, very popular because of their
project topics.
• Supervisors are limited to a maximum of 5 project students
• So they soon become booked up.
• Students might rush and book up projects without giving
enough consideration.
• They may then not enjoy their project and may try to
change to another supervisor and another project but it
may then be too late to find a good choice available.
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Define Project with Supervisor
• Discuss the project goals with prospective supervisor.
• Supervisor can make project harder/easier to match the
required academic standard and shorter/longer to match
what is possible in the time.
• Project needs to interest you a lot - it should absolutely
fascinate you and be so interesting that you want to do it
during your free time because it is fun.
• You may want it to be in areas you are good at or new
areas you want to learn about.
• Project should match your table of desirable proportions of
daily activities.
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Define Project with Supervisor
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Supervisor needs to be able to supervise project.
It can be in his area of expertise.
Or can be in a new area which interests him
Academics are experts at carrying out projects no matter
what the area as the principles are the same.
• Only £100 is allocated to the supervisor for project costs.
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Academic Supervisor
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Every time you see the academics they are teaching you.
However, this is only part of what they are expected to do.
The rest of their time is spent on research.
Part of their teaching and research time is spent on
administration and management too.
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Academic Supervisor
• Some academics have a research group consisting of:
– Postdoctoral Research Assistants (RAs or Postdocs)
whom they employ to carry out research,
– Research Students who are working towards higher
degrees such as MPhil, MRes, EngD, PhD.
– Academic Visitors from other countries
• It is beneficial to a BEng, MEng, MSc student to carry out
his/her project in the research group in the same subject
area and aiming towards the same goal.
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Academic Supervisor
• The members of the research group can often help the
student with solving day to day problems in the project.
• They are usually closer to the students age and a student
may find it easier to talk to them.
• Sometimes a project is closely related to the work of a
member of the group and he will give you day-to-day
supervision.
• Of course the academic supervisor remains in overall
charge and will oversee and direct the course of your
project.
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Academic Supervisor
• Supervisors usually are members of staff of the EE
department but it is possible to have second assessors
from Computer Science or Medical Physics department.
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Academic Supervisor
• Each academic carries out research in a certain area of
knowledge which is his/her specialist topic area.
• You need to find out these so that you know who to
approach to supervise a project in an area that you like.
• List of all academics research activities in next few slides
and at http://www.ee.ucl.ac.uk/dept/staff/academic/ and
• http://www.ee.ucl.ac.uk/dept/academic.html
• Look at the academics personal web pages e.g.
http://www.ee.ucl.ac.uk/~afernand/
• Look at the research groups web page e.g.
http://www.ee.ucl.ac.uk/~pbrennan/ar/
• Ask your tutor to give guidance on who to approach.
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Research Areas
Networks
Digital
Digital
Services
Telecoms
RF and Radar
Materials
Optics
Computing
Maths
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Research Layers
Services
Systems
Devices
Materials
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George Pavlou
• Networks
• network management and service engineering
• the convergence of telecommunication and packet
networks
• the next generation Internet and wireless self-organised
networks
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Yang Yang
• Mobile ad hoc networks and wireless sensor networks
• Third generation (3G) mobile communication systems and
beyond
• Dynamic radio resource management (RRM) for integrated
services,
• Cross-layer radio resource management, performance
evaluation and optimisation for wireless communication
systems
• Medium access control (MAC) protocols for wireless
sensor networks
• Simulation study of UWB, WiMAX and mobile IPv6
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Miguel Rio
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Telecommunications
Internet Congestion Control
Quality of Service
Routing and QoS Routing
Multicast
Traffic Analysis
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Izzat Darwazeh
• Optical and wireless communications systems
• Design, modelling and experimentation of wireless and
mobile communication systems
• High speed optical communications
• Radio over fibre systems
• High speed circuit design and integrated circuits for optical
systems
• Modulation techniques and software defined radio
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John Mitchell
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Optical and wireless communications systems
Design, modelling and experimentation
High speed optical communications
Mobile and wireless communication systems
High speed circuits and MMICs
optical access (Fibre to the Home)
radio distribution networks using optical fibere
Hardware for Wireless sensor networks and monitoring
applications. Good Professional Practice Copyright © 2008 UCL
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Ioannis Andreopoulos
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Signal transforms
Fast Transforms
Video Coding
Video transmission through unreliable media
Wireless networks
Internet
Pattern Recognition
Image Compression
C and Matlab needed and ideally signal or image processing
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Polina Bayvel
• Optical Communications: networks, transmission, devices
• Optical Network Architectures: optical burst switching,
optical packet networks, wavelength routed optical
networks
• Ultra-high speed WDM transmission:
• Optical non-linearities and fundamental limitation to fibre
transmission
• Ultra-short pulse propagation in dispersive media:
• New optical devices for short pulse generation,
multiwavelength clock recovery and regeneration,
routers/crossconnects, tuneable lasers
• Surface plasmon polariton-based devices for optical
processing
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Robert Killey
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Optical Communications
Ultra-high speed WDM transmission systems
Wavelength routed optical networks
Network planning and performance monitoring
Simulation and analysis of optical communication transmission
systems
advanced optical signal formats,
transmission impairments including optical fibre dispersion and
nonlinearity
dense wavelength division multiplexing
novel optical and electronic equalisation techniques.'
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Seb Savory
• Experimental and theoretical research in optical
communication systems
• Digital signal processing for nonlinear systems
– optical transmission systems
– diagnosis of brugada in the heart
• Digital signal processing to increase the capacity of
installed fibre base while simultaneously compensating
transmission impairments.
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Benn Thomsen
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Physical layer implementation of dynamic optical networks,
Fast tunable burst mode transmitters,
digital burst mode receiver,
burst mode amplification
nonlinear optical signal processing
Matlab based simulation software for modeling of optical
transmission systems and networks
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Alwyn Seeds
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Microwave photonic devices and systems
Coherent optical communication systems
Tuneable and mode-locked semiconductor lasers
Ultra-fast optical communications
Quantum well modulators and saturable absorbers
InP-based lasers, modulators and detectors.
Wireless over fibre and other optical access systems
THz systems.
Good Professional Practice Copyright © 2008 UCL
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Cyril Renaud
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Optoelectronics
Uncooled WDM sources
agile tuneable laser diode and monolithic optical
frequency comb generator using Quantum Confined Stark
Effect
• high frequency, photodetectors and optical frequency
generation systems in the optical and millimetre wave
domains (DWDM, THZ).
Good Professional Practice Copyright © 2008 UCL
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Sally Day
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Liquid crystal devices and LCDs
Modelling of displays and other liquid crystal devices
Microlenses and their applications
microwave applications of liquid crystal
tunable liquid crystal optical filters
tunable liquid crystal microlenses
structured illumination for microscopy and other optical
devices and systems.
Good Professional Practice Copyright © 2008 UCL
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F. Anibal Fernandez
• Computer modelling of
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- liquid crystal devices
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- optical devices
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- microwave/antennas
• Applications of liquid crystals in microwave and optical
devices
• Computer modelling in Electromagnetics
• Numerical methods
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Nicolae Panoiu
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Modelling of optical waveguides in polymer and silicon
silicon (nonlinear) photonics – modelling and device applications
metamaterials with negative index of refraction
nonlinear photonic crystals
optical properties of plasmonic nanostructures
optical solitons in media with quadratic or cubic nonlinearities
optical solitons in fibres, soliton-WDM
FDTD modelling of VCSELSs and other active photonic devices
Good Professional Practice Copyright © 2008 UCL
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David R. Selviah
• Modelling of polymer optical waveguides on printed circuit
boards with 10 companies and 3 universites
• Modelling of LED coupling to colour separating LCD
backlights
• Real time, video image transformation in MATLAB and
VHDL with one company
• Design of a high speed parallel processor computer for
pattern recognition using higher order neural networks
Good Professional Practice Copyright © 2008 UCL
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Oleg Mitrofanov
• Experimental research on the femtosecond and picosecond time
scales
• Ultrafast lasers producing very short optical pulses.
• ultrafast phenomena such as atomic vibrations in crystals and
molecular rotations in gases.
• Terahertz (THz) research
• THz characterization tools,
• THz time resolved imaging system,
• THz light imaging with picosecond resolution.
Good Professional Practice Copyright © 2008 UCL
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Chris Baker
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Radar
Sonar
RF
Electronic Warfare technology and techniques
sensor systems
signal processing
Many projects with industry
Good Professional Practice Copyright © 2008 UCL
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Paul Brennan
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Microwaves/RF Electronics
Phase locked loops
Synthesisers
Antennas
Phased Arrays
Radar
Chaos
RF-ID tags
Good Professional Practice Copyright © 2008 UCL
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Karl Woodbridge
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Radar and Air Traffic Control Systems
Radar
Air Traffic Control
Avionics
Satellite Communications
Global Positioning Systems
Good Professional Practice Copyright © 2008 UCL
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Kenneth Tong
• Planar antenna design, Microstrip antenna, low-k dielectric
PCB, semiconductor process for high frequency antenna
design ~30 - 60 GHz.
• Passive microwave and millimetre wave devices, X band
to Ka Band, microstrip filters.
• Microwave and millimetre wave measurement, Network
analyser, spectrum analyser, probe station, anechoic
chamber for antenna measurements.
Good Professional Practice Copyright © 2008 UCL
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Paul Warburton
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Nanoelectronic Materials and Devices
Superconductivity
Carbon Nanotubes
Carbon Buckyballs
Quantum Electronic Devices
Josephson Junctions
Nanolithography
Focussed Ion-Beam Nanofabrication Techniques
Good Professional Practice Copyright © 2008 UCL
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Ed Romans
• Pulsed laser deposition of high temperature
superconductor thin films and new oxide materials for
nanoscale devices.
• Superconducting Electronics - Josephson junctions,
Superconducting quantum interference devices (SQUIDs)
and their applications especially in biomagnetism,
geophysics and fundamental metrology.
• Quantum interference and frustration in multi-junction
arrays - superconducting quantum interference filters
(SQIFs).
• Nano-scale SQUIDs for single photon and spin detection
applications in quantum communication and quantum
computing. Good Professional Practice Copyright © 2008 UCL
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Ian Boyd
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Fabrication and Processing for Nanotechnology
Low temperature nanometre thin film growth
Laser Applications
Ultraviolet sources and applications
High and low k dielectrics
Advanced optical and microelectronic devices
Si, SiGe, SiGeC Devices
Silicon Oxidation
Good Professional Practice Copyright © 2008 UCL
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Richard Jackman
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Diamond Electronics
The growth of diamond and other wide band gap semiconductors
Fabrication of micro and optoelectronic devices from diamond
Control of defects and carrier transport within diamond.
Laser processing of electronic materials.
Electronic characteristics of diamond
Doped and undoped, single crystal or nanocrystalline diamond
Clean-room based fabrication of active devices.
Good Professional Practice Copyright © 2008 UCL
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Tony Kenyon
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Optoelectronic and Nanostructured Materials
Rare-earth doped optical materials
scanning probe microscopy
silicon photonics
materials for lasers and optical amplifiers
plasma processing of materials
laser spectroscopy
the physics of light emission from novel materials
quantum confinement effects in semiconductors.
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Neil Curzon
• Materials processing
• Controlled placement and imaging of dopants in
semiconductors
• Study and control of chemical reactions at surfaces
• Development of scanning probe lithography techniques
• Fabrication of novel materials by molecular manipulation
Good Professional Practice Copyright © 2008 UCL
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Arokia Nathan
• Digital x-ray imaging for radiography, fluoroscopy, and
mammography.
• Active matrix organic light emitting diode displays.
• Low dark current detectors for fluorescent-based bioassays.
• Large area MEMS for electronic skin.
• Inorganic, organic, and nanocomposite thin film transistors
and circuit integration.
• Electronics on flexible substrates such as plastic or
polyester
Good Professional Practice Copyright © 2008 UCL
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Andreas Demosthenous
• Design of Analogue and mixed-signal integrated circuits
• Applications
– Communications
– Video Coding
– Error-Control Coding
– Medical Electronics
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Tom Crummey
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Computer Networks
Control Systems
Parallel Processing
Can only take 2 project students
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Computer Science
• Second assessors can be taken from other departments
• Saleem Bhatti
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Medical Physics
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Second assessors can be taken from other departments
Nick Donaldson
Martin Fry
Jem Hebden
Especially electronic devices for medical application
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CAN YOU DESCRIBE YOUR LIFE IN TWO PAGES?
CURRICULUM VITAE
Good Professional Practice Copyright © 2008 UCL
Curriculum Vitae
• You must now prepare a Curriculum Vitae (CV)
• This will be useful for applying for summer jobs and for
your permanent job.
• Look at web site for instructions
http://www.careers.lon.ac.uk/helpshts/cvs.htm
• Visit UCL and UoL Careers Centre.
• Prepare a CV.
• Take your CV to your tutor and discuss its layout and
content and then make an improved version.
• Take CV to Careers Service for extra comments
• You may need to go around this loop again.
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Curriculum Vitae
• Please go to UCL Careers Service 4th Floor, ULU, Malet
Street, 020 7866 3600 Email: [email protected]
• http://www.ucl.ac.uk/careers/
• and ask for the double sided flyer and the somewhat larger
booklet on how to write a CV.
• You can “drop in” there once you have written your CV and
they are happy to comment on it to help you to improve it.
• They also provide details of companies requesting
students for holiday placements: Hobson’s guide,
Prospects, University of London website.
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Curriculum Vitae
• Layout is important as it gives your employer their first
impression of you.
• The interviewer only looks at it for 3 (!) seconds before
discarding it so if they have not obtained the key data by
then you will have failed.
• Your CV needs to be presented in a relevant way.
• You need to emphasise the skills that are important for
your potential employer.
• Give proof of your ability, don’t just say that you are hard
working.
• After reading your CV the interviewer should be left with a
lasting favourable impression.
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Curriculum Vitae
• Personal details
•
name (put family name in CAPITALS)
•
address (with dates if more than one)
•
telephone number (and e-mail)
•
date of birth
•
nationality
•
sex
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Curriculum Vitae
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Education
Dates:
details of your university education
First year courses studied with course marks
GCSEs & A-levels (or equivalent) with grades
Prizes awarded, titles of project performed
Work experience
Dates:
Companies
Text saying what useful skills you learnt
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Curriculum Vitae
• Skills
•
•
•
•
foreign languages
computing languages or packages
keyboard skills
driving
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Curriculum Vitae
• Leisure interests
•
sports
•
music, drama and other cultural activities
•
membership of clubs and societies
•
positions of responsibility in clubs and societies
• Referees
•
Your first year and second year tutors
•
all of their contact details, especially e-mail
•
addresses.
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Checklist
• Decide what order of importance you would put these in
and discuss your decision with your tutor: Daily activities,
Supervisor, Subject?
• What proportion of each of the daily activities do you want
to do in the project? Fill in the table on the next page.
Discuss with your tutor.
• Decide on a subject area and look into it in the library.
• Prepare your CV taking care to put all your first and
second year courses.
• Make your first appointment with a potential supervisor
• Define your project with your supervisor
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Daily Activities Table
Maths
Design
Computing
Electronic Experiments
Optical Experiments
Clean Room Fabrication
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