Transcript Slide 1

1. Made of cells.
2. Reproduce.
3. Universal genetic code (DNA).
4. Grow and develop.
5. Obtain and use materials and energy (metabolism).
6. Respond to their environment.
7. Maintain a stable internal environment (homeostasis)
8. Taken as a group, living things change over time (evolve and adapt).
Unicellular : made of one cell (single-celled)
Multicellular : made of many cells
Cell specialization: allows cells to perform different functions in multicellular organisms
LEVELS OF ORGANIZATION
Biosphere: Earth- contains all ecosystems
Ecosystem: living and nonliving things in
a community
Community: all living things in an area
Population: one type of living thing in an area
Organism: one individual living thing
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BIOMOLECULES
Drawings
Monomer (name
and draw)
Monosaccharide
Carbohydrate
Lipid
(glucose,
fructose and
galactose)
(simple sugars)
*Glycerol
*3 Fatty Acid
Chains
Polymer
(name and draw)
Job/Purpose
List
examples
Main source of
energy
Starches
and sugars
Triglyceride
*Store energy
*Biological
membranes
*Waterproofing
Fats
Oils
Waxes
Steroids
Nucleic Acids
(DNA and RNA)
store and
transmit
genetic
information
DNA
and
RNA
Protein
-Control rate of reactions
-Regulate cell processes
-Form bones and muscles
-Transport substances
in/out of cell
-Help fight diseases
-Act as catalysts
(enzymes)
Polysaccharide
(starches)
Animal=glycogen
Plant=cellulose
BIOMOLECULES
Nucleotides
Nucleic Acids
(for DNA= A G T C)
(for RNA= A G U C)
*3 parts of a nucleotide=
5-C sugar, nitrogenous
base, phosphate group
Amino Acids
Proteins
*3 parts:
carboxyl group (C),
amino group (N),
R-group (varies)
Insulin
Hemoglobin
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Bonding involves VALENCE ELECTRONS
(outermost electrons of the atom)
IONIC BONDING
Transfer electrons
Lose valence electron
form positive ion
Gain valence electron
form negative ion
Recall:
IONS: electrons vary
COVALENT BONDING
Share electrons
ISOTOPES: neutrons vary
Example: water
2 atoms of H, 1 atom of O
Forms a compound:
Combination of two or
more different elements in
definite proportions
Chemical Reactions
Reactants
Atoms are rearranged during chemical reaction.
Products
The energy needed to get a reaction started
is ACTIVATION energy.
If a reaction in one direction releases energy,
the reaction in the opposite direction absorbs energy.
Forms of energy that may be released/absorbed:
HEAT, SOUND, LIGHT
Catalysts lower the activation energy of a chemical reaction,
changing the speed of the reaction.
Enzymes are biological catalysts that affect the reactions
in living cells by changing the speed of a reaction by lowering
activation energy of chemical reactions.
ACIDS/BASES
pH measures H+ concentration
SUBSTANCE
pH
Hydrochloric acid
1.0
Sulfuric acid
1.2
Tomatoes
4.2
Rainwater
6.2
Pure water
7.0
Sea water
8.5
Ammonium
chloride
11.1
More acidic
ACIDIC
Less acidic
NEUTRAL
Less basic
BASIC
More basic
Sodium hydroxide
13.0
DNA
Found in nucleus
of eukaryotes!
TRANSFORMATION:
Avery determined that DNA was the molecule
transferred during transformation of bacteria.
DNA is made up of nucleotides.
Each nucleotide has three parts:
a) nitrogenous base
b) deoxyribose sugar
c) phosphate group
Found in equal amounts in DNA
Packaging of DNA:
DNA twists around
HISTONES, then forms
NUCLEOSOMES, then
COILS, then continues twisting into
SUPERCOILS, which then form
CHROMOSOMES!
REPLICATION
 is the process of making more DNA!
Each new molecule includes:
1 new strand
1 old strand
A pairs with T
G pairs with C
TAC GGG ATA
ATG CCC TAT
Replication of DNA
occurs in the nucleus
of eukaryotic cells.
RNA
3 Types of RNAall copied from DNA!
Each nucleotide has three parts: 1.
Messenger RNA (mRNA)
a) nitrogenous base (AGCU)
- carries the info from DNA to the
b) RIBOSE sugar
ribosome
c) phosphate group
2.
Ribosomal RNA (rRNA)
- a component of the ribosome
3.
Transfer RNA (tRNA)
- carries amino acids to the ribosome,
matching with mRNA codons
All types of RNA are involved in protein synthesis!
RNA vs DNA
Nucleotide
RNA
Single-stranded
Ribose sugar
Phosphate groups
ACGU
DNA
Double-helix
Deoxyribose sugar
Phosphate groups
ACGT
Making mRNA TRANSCRIPTION
Transcription occurs
inside the nucleus
One strand
of the DNA is
copied to create
a single-stranded
mRNA molecule.
REMEMBER:
Uracil in RNA,
NOT thymine!
PROTEIN SYNTHESIS
Translation:
the cell uses information from
mRNA to produce proteins
The Genetic Code
mRNA is the blueprint of the genetic code
1 codon = 1 amino acid
2 codons = 2 amino acids
3 codons = 3 amino acids
etc….
Genes contain instructions for
assembling the proteins.
There are 64 different kinds of
codons, but only 20 different
amino acids.
Process X = transcription
Process Y = translation
Molecule A/B = DNA
Part C = nucleotide (DNA)
Molecule D = mRNA
E = start codon (methionine)
F = codon
Structure A = nucleus
Molecule B = mRNA
Structure C = ribosome
Molecule D = tRNA
E = anticodon
F = codon (start = methionine)
Molecule G = mRNA
MUTATIONS
Any kind of change to the base sequence of either DNA or RNA.
- Mutations cause the amino acid sequence to be incorrect.
- An incorrect amino acid sequence usually causes the protein to be
nonfunctional or it gives the protein new functions.
1. Gene Mutations (a.k.a. POINT MUTATION)
Involves only one or a few nucleotides (A, T, G, C, or U)
A. Substitution – replace one base with another. May not even
cause a problem.
Frameshift
mutation
B. Insertion – a new base is placed in the sequence; this alters the
reading frame & every amino acid after the mutation
is altered.
C. Deletion – a base is removed & every amino acid after this
mutation is altered.
2. Chromosomal Mutations – affect whole chromosomes
A. Deletion – part of the chromosome
disappears
C. Inversion – the sequence of
genes on the chromosome is
partially flipped.
B. Duplication – part of the chromosome
is copied.
D. Translocation – part of one
chromosome is clipped off and
placed on another chromosome.
The Cell Theory Applies to all living things
plants, animals, fungi, bacteria multicellular AND unicellular organisms!
1. All living things are made of cells.
2. Cells are the basic units of life.
3. New cells are produced from existing cells.
Prokaryotes
Eukaryotes
Lack nucleus (NO NUCLEUS)
Have a nucleus
No membrane-bound organelles
Have specialized organelles
Contain: DNA (genetic material)
cytoplasm
cell membrane
Also contain: DNA (genetic material)
cytoplasm
cell membrane
Nucleus (eukaryotes only!)
What is found in the nucleus:
1) DNA (in the form of chromatin)
2) Nucleolus (makes ribosomes)
Functions:
1) store DNA
2) controls most cell processes
3) contains the info needed to make proteins
LYSOSOME
Breaks down food
into molecules the
cell can use.
RIBOSOME
Makes proteins using
coded instructions
(mRNA) that come
from the nucleus.
MITOCHONDRION
Converts the
chemical energy
stored in food into
compounds that are
more convenient for
the cell to use.
CYTOSKELETON
Helps a cell keep its shape.
CHLOROPLAST
Converts sunlight
into energy for the
cell… PLANTS!
CELL WALL
Support and
protect the cell…
PLANTS!
PLANT CELLS have cell walls and chloroplasts!
A- Cell wall (cell support and protection)
 outside of cell membrane
B- Nucleus
C- Cell membrane
D- Rough endoplasmic reticulum (RER)
E- Chloroplast
F- Vacuole
ANIMAL CELL
A- RER
B- Cytoplasm
C- Smooth endoplasmic reticulum (SER)
D- Nucleolus (makes ribosomes)
E- Nucleus
F- Mitochondrion (converts glucose into ATP)
G- Golgi apparatus
H- Ribosome (synthesis/make proteins)
I- Cell membrane
Cell Membrane
Functions of the cell membrane:
Regulates what materials enter and
leave the cell.
PROTEINS
channels and pumps that help
move materials from one side to
the other
CARBOHYDRATES
identify the cell
LIPIDS
tails of phospholipid bilayer
hydrophobic (HATE water)
PHOSPHATE GROUPS
heads of phospholipid bilayer
hydrophilic (LOVE water)
All cells have them!
Movement Through the Cell Membrane
PASSIVE TRANSPORT
NO energy required
[high]  [low]
DIFFUSION
OSMOSIS
FACILITATED
DIFFUSION
ACTIVE TRANSPORT
Energy required (ATP)
[low]  [high]
PROTEIN PUMPS
open and close
 diffusion of  uses a protein
water across channel (bigger
opening for larger
a selectively
molecules)
permeable
membrane
ISOTONIC
 concentration
of molecules is the
same on both sides
of a membrane
 molecules move
across the membrane
in both directions
EXOCYTOSIS
ENDOCYTOSIS
Into cell
Exit cell
Cell Specialization
The cells of multicellular organisms are specialized to perform different tasks.
Simplest
Most complex
Cell Energy ATP
Energy is released from ATP when
a phosphate group is removed!
Three parts of ATP molecule:
A- adenine
B- ribose
C and D- phosphate groups
A+B+C = ADP
A+B+C+D = ATP
Photosynthesis
AUTOTROPHS: organisms that make their own food
Photosynthesis uses sunlight to convert water and carbon dioxide
into OXYGEN and HIGH-ENERGY SUGARS.
Plants gather the sun’s energy with light–absorbing molecules called pigments.
Chlorophyll is one type of pigment.
LIGHT-DEPendent Reactions
~Occurs within thylakoid
membranes
~Produces ATP and NADPH, which
are sources of energy for the Calvin
Cycle.
LIGHT-INDependent Reactions
~Occurs in the stroma (region
outside of the thylakoids)
~Produces high-energy sugars
~Requires CO2 in order to produce
sugars.
CELLULAR RESPIRATION
1 molecule of glucose produces 36 ATP!
The aerobic* processes involved in releasing the ATP(energy) stored in glucose.
*aerobic = requires oxygen
The overall equation for cellular respiration:
6 O2 + C6H12O6 6 CO2 + 6 H2O + Energy
The sequence of events:
GLYCOLYSIS
KREBS CYCLE
occurs in the cytoplasm
occurs in the matrix
of the mitochondrion
Glucose → Pyruvic Acid + 2 ATP
ELECTRON
TRANSPORT
occurs in the
inner membrane
of the mitochondrion
When oxygen is NOT available (anaerobic), FERMENTATION occurs:
ALCOHOLIC FERMENTATION: Glucose → Pyruvic Acid → CO2 + alcohol + 2 ATP
LACTIC ACID FERMENTATION: Glucose → Pyruvic Acid → Lactic Acid + 2 ATP
Chromosome Structure:
1. Has an “X” shape
2. Each side of the X is
called a sister
chromatid.
3. Sister chromatids are
held together by a
centromere.
- centromeres are
basically protein
velcro.
4. Kinetochores are where
the mitotic spindle will
attach during mitosis
10-2: Cell Division
Chromosome Structure:
the confusing part
1. Chromatin condenses
into chromosomes
2. Chromosomes are
made of chromatids.
3. When the chromatids
separate during
mitosis, they are called
chromosomes again.
They are all made of
the same stuff, just a
different name at
different times.
Cell Division
The Eukaryotic Cell Cycle:
Has Two Main Phases:
1. Interphase
- The time between cell divisions
2. M Phase
- Mitosis & Cytokinesis occurs during
this phase.
Cell Division
Interphase:
1.
2.
3.
Growth Phase 1 (G1 Phase)
- Cell doubles its size
Synthesis Phase (S Phase)
- DNA Replication occurs
Growth Phase 2 (G2 Phase)
- Cell produces the
materials that will be used
during cell division
- The Centrioles replicate
- “Spell Checks” the DNA
to make sure it is ready
for cell division.
Cell Division
M phase
Mitosis
- This is the division of the nucleus
after DNA Replication.
- Each daughter cell will receive a
complete nucleus
- Has four phases (PMAT)
Followed by: Cytokinesis
- This is the division of the
cell.
Cell Division- PMAT
The Mitotic Phases:
1. Prophase
- Chromatin condenses
into chromosomes.
- The nuclear envelope
begins to break down.
- Centrioles begin to
move towards the
poles.
- The mitotic spindle
begins to form.
Cell Division PMAT
The Mitotic Phases:
2. Metaphase
- The chromosomes line
up on the cell’s
equator.
- The nuclear envelope is
gone.
- Centrioles are at the
poles.
- The spindle is complete
and attached to the
kinetochores.
Cell Division - PMAT
The Mitotic Phases:
3. Anaphase
- The centromeres separate
& the chromatids become
individual chromosomes.
- The kinetochores “chew”
their way towards the
centrioles.
- Chromosomes move all
the way to the poles.
Cell Division- PMAT
The Mitotic Phases:
4. Telophase
- Basically the
opposite of the
Prophase.
- Chromosomes
uncoil.
- Nuclear Envelope
reforms.
- Spindle breaks
down.
Cell Division
M Phase: the cell division phase & has two
parts
A. Mitosis – division of the nucleus
The 4 Mitotic Phases:
1. Prophase
2. Metaphase
3. Anaphase
4. Telophase
B. Cytokinesis – starts during Telophase
Cell regulation
• Internal regulators group of proteins that
respond to events occurring inside a cell
– cyclin- protein that regulates the cell cycle
• External regulators group of proteins that
respond to events outside the cell
– growth factors- group of external regulatory
proteins that stimulate the growth and division
of cells
Regulating the Cell Cycle
Uncontrolled Cell Growth (cancer):
Cancer cells do not respond to normal regulatory signals. A
mass of tumor cells is called a tumor.
The p53 protein is the spell checker of DNA
Replication.
A functional p53 recognizes mistakes and if they are
severe enough, will cause the cell to go through apoptosis
(Programmed Cell Death).
- The carcinogens in tobacco smoke have
been shown to directly damage the p53
gene.
Cell Differentiation
What are stem cells?
undifferentiated or unspecialized
cells.
Types of embryonic stem cells:
1. Totipotent – these stem
cells can develop into any
type of cell. Only the
fertilized egg & the first few
cell made by the early cell
divisions are totipotent.
2. Pluripotent – these stem
cells are found in the inner
cells mass (ICM) of the
blastocyst. These cells can
turn into most of the 200+
different human cell types.
The ICM will become the
organism.
Cell Differentiation
What are adult stem cells?
• stem cells are found in
many organs.
• Are multipotent because
they can only turn into the
cells of the various tissues
of the organ.