PowerPoint to accompany Hole’s Human Anatomy and

Download Report

Transcript PowerPoint to accompany Hole’s Human Anatomy and

Chapter 02
*Lecture and
Animation Outline
with
Anatomy & Physiology
Revealed Images
To run the animations you must be in Slideshow View. Use
the buttons on the animation to play, pause, and turn
audio/text on or off.
Please Note: Once you have used any of the animation
functions (such as Play or Pause), you must first click on the
slide’s background before you can advance to the next slide.
*See separate FlexArt PowerPoint slides for all
figures and tables pre-inserted into PowerPoint
without notes and animations.
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
1
Type Institution Name Here
Type Course Number Here:
Type Course Name Here
Chapter 2
Type Professor Name Here
Type Academic Rank Here
Type Department Name Here
2
2.1: Introduction
Why study chemistry in an
Anatomy and Physiology class?
- Body functions depend on cellular functions
- Cellular functions result from chemical changes
- Biochemistry helps to explain physiological processes
3
2.2: Structure of Matter
Matter – anything that takes up space and has mass (weight).
It is composed of elements.
Elements – composed of chemically identical atoms:
• Bulk elements – required by the body in large amounts
• Trace elements - required by the body in small amounts
• Ultratrace elements – required by the body in very
minute amounts
Atoms – smallest particle of an element
4
Table 2.1 Some Particles of Matter
5
Elements and Atoms
• All matter is composed of elements
•Elements are:
• Bulk elements
• Trace elements
• Ultratrace elements
• Elements are composed of atoms of the same type
• Compounds are composed of atoms of different types
that are chemically bonded
6
Atomic Structure
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
Atoms - composed of
subatomic particles:
Neutron
(n0)
-
• Proton – carries a single
positive charge
Proton
(p+)
• Neutron – carries no
electrical charge
• Electron – carries a single
negative charge
Nucleus
• Central part of atom
• Composed of protons and
neutrons
• Electrons move around the
nucleus
0
+
+
0
0
0
+
Lithium (Li)
-
Electron
(e–)
Nucleus
7
Atomic Number
and
Atomic Weight
Atomic Number
• Number of protons in the nucleus of one atom
• Each element has a unique atomic number
• Equals the number of electrons in the atom
Atomic Weight
• Approximated by the number of protons plus the number of
neutrons in one atom (since a proton and a neutron each have an
approximate atomic weight of one)
• Electrons do not contribute to the weight of the atom
8
Isotopes
Isotopes
• Atoms with the same atomic numbers but with
different atomic weights
• Different numbers of neutrons
• Oxygen often forms isotopes (O16, O17, and O18)
• Radioactive isotopes are unstable, releasing energy or
pieces of themselves (atomic radiation)
For an element, the atomic weight is often considered the
average of the atomic weights of its isotopes.
9
2.1 From Science to Technology
Radioactive Isotopes Reveal Physiology
10
2.2 From Science to Technology
Ionizing Radiation:
From the Cold War to Yucca Mountain
11
Molecules and Compounds
Molecule – particle formed when two or more atoms
chemically combine
Compound – particle formed when two or more atoms of
different elements chemically combine
Molecular formulas – depict the elements present and
the number of each atom present in the molecule
H2
C6H12O6
H2O
12
Molecules and Compounds
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
H
H
O
13
Bonding of Atoms
• Bonds form when atoms combine with other atoms
• Electrons of an atom occupy regions of space called
electron shells which circle the nucleus
• For atoms with atomic numbers of 18 or less, the following
rules apply:
• The first shell can hold up to 2 electrons
• The second shell can hold up to 8 electrons
• The third shell can hold up to 8 electrons
14
Bonding of Atoms
• Lower shells are filled first
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
• If the outermost shell is full, the atom is stable
-
+
Hydrogen (H)
0
-
-
+
+ 0
+
0
0
0
+
+
0
-
-
Helium (He)
Lithium (Li)
-
15
Ionic Bonds
Ionic Bonds
• An attraction between a cation and an anion
• Formed when electrons are transferred from one atom to
another atom
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
Na+
+
11p+
12n0
17p+
18n0
Sodium ion (Na+)
–
Cl–
Chloride ion (Cl–)
Sodium chloride
16
Bonding of Atoms: Ions
Ion
• An atom that gains or loses electrons to become stable
• An electrically charged atom
Cation
• A positively charged ion
• Formed when an atom loses electrons
11p+
12n0
17p+
18n0
Anion
• A negatively charged ion
• Formed when an atom gains
electrons
Sodium atom (Na)
Chlorine atom (Cl)
17
Covalent Bonds
• Formed when atoms share electrons
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
H
-
H
-
H2
-
+
+
+
+
-
Hydrogen atom
+
Hydrogen atom
• Hydrogen atoms form single bonds
• Oxygen atoms form two bonds
• Nitrogen atoms form three bonds
• Carbon atoms form four bonds
Hydrogen molecule
H―H
O=O
N≡N
O=C=O
18
Bonding of Atoms:
Structural Formula
• Structural formulas show how atoms bond and are arranged in
various molecules
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
H
H
H
H2
O
O
O2
H
O
H2O
O
C
CO2
19
O
Bonding of Atoms:
Polar Molecules
Polar Molecules
• Molecule with a slightly negative end and a slightly positive end
• Results when electrons are not shared equally in covalent bonds
• Water is an important polar molecule
Slightly negative ends
20
(a)
Slightly positive ends
Hydrogen Bonds
Hydrogen Bonds
• A weak attraction between the positive end of one polar
molecule and the negative end of another polar molecule
• Formed between water molecules
• Important for protein and nucleic acid structure
H
H
O
H
O
H
O
H
O
H
H
O
(b)
Hydrogen bonds
H
H
21
H
Chemical Reactions
Chemical reactions occur when chemical bonds form or
break among atoms, ions, or molecules
Reactants are the starting materials of the reaction - the
atoms, ions, or molecules
Products are substances formed at the end of the chemical
reaction
NaCl  Na+ + ClReactant
Products
22
Types of Chemical Reactions
Synthesis Reaction – more complex chemical structure is
formed
A + B  AB
Decomposition Reaction – chemical bonds are broken to form
a simpler chemical structure
AB  A + B
Exchange Reaction – chemical bonds are broken and new bonds
are formed
AB + CD  AD + CB
Reversible Reaction – the products can change back to the
reactants
23
A + B n AB
Acids, Bases, and Salts
Electrolytes – substances that release ions in water
NaCl  Na+ + Cl-
Acids – electrolytes that dissociate to release hydrogen ions
in water
HCl  H+ + Cl-
Bases – substances that release ions that can combine with
hydrogen ions
NaOH  Na+ + OH-
Salts – electrolytes formed by the reaction between an acid
and a base
HCl + NaOH  H2O + NaCl
24
Acids, Bases, and Salts
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
Na+
Cl–
Salt crystal
Na+
Cl–
Ions in
solution
25
Acid and Base Concentration
pH scale - indicates the concentration of hydrogen ions in
solution
Neutral – pH 7;
indicates equal
concentrations of H+
and OH-
Acidic – pH less than
7; indicates a greater
concentration of H+
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
Acidic
Relative
+
Amounts H
+
of H (red)
3.0
and OH–
2.0
apple
(blue)
gastric juice
juice
5.3
4.2
cabbage
tomato
juice
8.4
7.4
6.6
Sodium
cow’s Human biocarbonate
blood
milk
6.0
corn
pH 0
1
Acidic
2
3
4
5
H+ concentration increases
6
8.0
7.0
Egg
Distilled white
water
7
Neutral
8
10.5
milk of
magnesia
11.5
Household
ammonia
Basic
OH–
9
10
11
12
13
14
OH– concentration increases
Basic (alkaline)
Basic or alkaline – pH greater than 7;
indicates a greater concentration of OH26
Changes in pH and Buffers
Blood pH
• Normal blood pH is 7.35 – 7.45
• Alkalosis occurs when blood pH rises to 7.5 – 7.8
• Acidosis occurs when blood pH drops to 7.0 – 7.3
• Homeostatic mechanisms help regulate pH
• Buffers are chemicals which act to resist pH changes
27
2.3: Chemical Constituents
of Cells
Organic vs. Inorganic Molecules
Organic molecules
• Contain C and H
• Usually larger than inorganic molecules
• Dissolve in water and organic liquids
• Carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, and nucleic acids
Inorganic molecules
• Generally do not contain C and H
• Usually smaller than organic molecules
• Usually dissociate in water, forming ions
• Water, oxygen, carbon dioxide, and inorganic salts
28
Inorganic Substances
Water
• Most abundant compound in living material
• Two-thirds of the weight of an adult human
• Major component of all body fluids
• Medium for most metabolic reactions
• Important role in transporting chemicals in the body
• Absorbs and transports heat
Oxygen (O2)
• Used by organelles to release energy from nutrients in
order to drive cell’s metabolic activities
• Necessary for survival
29
Inorganic Substances
Carbon dioxide (CO2)
• Waste product released during metabolic reactions
• Must be removed from the body
Inorganic salts
• Abundant in body fluids
• Sources of necessary ions (Na+, Cl-, K+, Ca+2, etc.)
• Play important roles in metabolism
30
Organic Substances
Carbohydrates
• Provide energy to cells
• Supply materials to build cell structures
• Water-soluble
• Contain C, H, and O
• Ratio of H to O close to 2:1 (C6H12O6)
• Monosaccharides – glucose, fructose
• Disaccharides – sucrose, lactose
• Polysaccharides – glycogen, cellulose
31
Organic Substances
Carbohydrates
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
H
O
C
H
H
C
O
O
C
H
H
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
H
H
C
O
H
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
H
C
O
H
H
C
O
H
H
C
O
H
H
(a) Some glucose molecules
(C6H12O6) have a straight
chain of carbon atoms.
O
C
H
C
H
O
O
H
H
H C
O
O
C
C
H
O
H
H
(b) More commonly, glucose
molecules form a ring structure.
(c) This shape symbolizes
the ring structure of a
glucose molecule.
32
Organic Substances
Carbohydrates
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
O
O
O
O
(b) Disaccharide
(a) Monosaccharide
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
O
O
O
(c) Polysaccharide
33
Organic Substances
Lipids
• Soluble in organic solvents; insoluble in water
• Fats (triglycerides)
• Used primarily for energy; most common lipid in the body
• Contain C, H, and O but less O than carbohydrates (C57H110O6)
• Building blocks are 1 glycerol and 3 fatty acids per molecule
•Saturated fatty acids have only single carbon to carbon bonds
• Unsaturated fatty acids have one or more carbon to carbon
double bond
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
H H H
(a) Saturated fatty acid
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
O
H
O
C
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
H H H
(b) Unsaturated fatty acid
H
H
H
H
O
H
O
C
H
34
Organic Substances
Lipids
• Fats (triglycerides)
• Saturated fats contain three saturated fatty acids
• Mostly solid and come from animals
•
Unsaturated fats contain at least one unsaturated fatty acid
• Mostly liquid and come from plants
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
H
H
H
H
C
C
C
H
Glycerol
portion
O
O
O
O
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
O
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
O
H
H
H
H
H
H
C
C
C
C
C
C
H
H
H
H
H
Fatty acid
portions
H
H
Organic Substances
Lipids
• Phospholipids
• Building blocks are 1 glycerol, 2 fatty acids, and 1 phosphate per
molecule
• Hydrophilic and hydrophobic
• Major component of cell membranes
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
H
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
H
H
C
O
Fatty acid
H
C
O
Fatty acid
H
C
O
Fatty acid
H
Glycerol portion
(a) A fat molecule
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
H
C
O
Fatty acid
H
C
O
Fatty acid
O
H
C
H
O
P
O–
O
Water-insoluble
(hydrophobic)
“tail”
H
H
C
C
H
H
H
N
H
Water-soluble
(hydrophilic)
“head”
Phosphate portion
(b) A phospholipid molecule
(the unshaded portion may vary)
(c) Schematic representation
of a phospholipid molecule
36
Organic Substances
Lipids
• Steroids
• Four connected rings of carbon
• Widely distributed in the body, various functions
• Component of cell membrane
• Used to synthesize hormones
• Cholesterol
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
H2
C
C
H
CH
CH2
CH
C
C
H2
CH
CH2
HC
C
H2C
HO
H2 C
CH3
CH3
H2 CH3 H
C
C
C
CH3
CH2
CH2
CH2
CH
CH3
CH2
C
H
37
(a) General structure of a steroid
(b) Cholesterol
Organic Substances
Proteins
• Structural material
• Energy source
• Hormones
• Receptors
• Enzymes
• Antibodies
• Protein building blocks are
amino acids
• Amino acids held
together with peptide bonds
H
C
H
C
H
C
C
H
C
H
H
S
R
H
N
C
C
H
H
O
OH
H
C
H
C
H
N
C
C
H
H
O
OH
H
H
C
H
N
C
C
H
H
O
OH
38
Organic Substances
Proteins
Four Levels of Protein Structure
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
Amino acids
(a) Primary structure—Each
oblong shape in this
polypeptide chain represents
an amino acid molecule. The
whole chain represents a
portion of a protein molecule.
C
H
C
H
N
C
(b) Secondary structure—The
polypeptide chain of a protein
molecule is often either pleated
or twisted to form a coil. Dotted
lines represent hydrogen bonds.
R groups (see fig. 2.17)
are indicated in bold.
C
R
N
O
C
H
N
H
O
H H
H
R
C
N
C
N
C
H
O
H
H H
H
O
R
R
H
H
C
Pleated
structure
H
R
H
C
O
C
O
C
H
H
H
H O
H
C
N
O
R
R
N
H
C
O
C
O
Coiled
structure
H
O
R
H
C
N
H OR
N
C
R
C
HO
H
N C
C
C
H
C
N
C
N
R
C
C
N
H
C
R
C
N
H
H
C
C
HO
C
C
N
C
C
R
N
R
N
C
R
H
C
H
C
R
H
C
O
H
O
N
O
C
R
C
H
H
O
H
C
N
H
O
(c) Tertiary structure—
The pleated and coiled
polypeptide chain of a
protein molecule folds
into a unique three-dimensional
structure.
Three-dimensional
folding
(d) Quaternary structure—Two or more
polypeptide chains may be connected
to form a single protein molecule.
39
Animation: Protein Denaturation
Please note that due to differing
Please
note
that duesome
to differing
operating
systems,
animations
operating
systems,
some
animations is
will not appear until the presentation
will
not in
appear
until theMode
presentation
viewed
Presentation
(Slide is
viewed
in Presentation
Mode
(Slide
Show view).
You may see
blank
slides
Show
view).
You
may
see
blank
in the “Normal” or “Slide Sorter”slides
views.
in
the
“Normal”
or
“Slide
Sorter”
views.
All animations will appear after viewing
All
animations will
appear
after viewing
in Presentation
Mode
and playing
each
in
Presentation
Mode
and
playing
each
animation. Most animations will require
animation.
Most animations
will
require
the latest version
of the Flash
Player,
the
latest
version of
which
is available
at the Flash Player,
which
is available at
http://get.adobe.com/flashplayer.
http://get.adobe.com/flashplayer.
40
Organic Substances
Nucleic Acids
• Encode amino acid sequences of proteins
• Building blocks are nucleotides
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
P
B
S
• DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) – double polynucleotide
• RNA (ribonucleic acid) – single polynucleotide
41
Organic Substances
Nucleic Acids
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
P
B
S
P
B
B
B
B
B
B
B
B
P
P
S
B
S
P
S
P
S
B
S
P
S
P
S
B
S
P
S
(a)
B
S
P
S
P
B
P
S
B
P
B
S
P
S
P
B
S
B
P
S
P
S
(b)
P
42
2.3 From Science to Technology
CT Scanning and PET Imaging
43
Important Points in Chapter 2:
Outcomes to be Assessed
2.1: Introduction
 Give examples of how the study of living materials requires an
understanding of chemistry.
2.2: Structure of Matter
 Describe the relationships among matter, atoms, and molecules.
 Describe how atomic structure determines how atoms interact.
 Explain how molecular and structural formulas symbolize the
composition of compounds.
 Describe three types of chemical reactions.
 Describe the differences among acids, bases, and buffers.
 Explain the pH scale.
44
Important Points in Chapter 2:
Outcomes to be Assessed Continued
2.3: Chemical Constituents of Cells
 List the major groups of inorganic chemicals common in cells and
explain the function(s) of each group.
 Describe the general functions of the main classes of organic molecules
in cells.
45
Quiz 2
Complete Quiz 2 now!
Read Chapter 3.
46