Transcript International organizations, strategy and management 06.02.07

International organizations, strategy and
management
06.02.07
International legal forms of
organizing
• Activities are becoming increasingly
inter- and transnational – or crossboundary :
• - international trade,
• - financial markets,
• - economic interdependence,
• - as a result: - international pollution and
environmental and climate change,
• - international trade means that we may place our
pollution in other parts of the world,
• - international migration,
• - international cultural exchanges,
• The distinction between internal and external
problems is becoming increasingly blurred
and dissolving - factual globalization – and
international problemsolving may be needed:
• - Environmental and climate problems. (factual)
• - International trade and international financial
markets. (constructed)
• - International human rights standards.
(normative)
• - International migration. (factual, constr.,
normative)
International law – over time :
• The Westphalian model, 1648 :
• - nation-state sovereignty vs. international law: cooperation among states on a minmum level,
• The UN model 1945 :
• - an increased ambition of cooperation : ,
• - international human rights : 1948 UN Declaration,
• The Cosmopolitan model :
• The realization that many political and economic
problems cross the boundaries of the nation-states,
• Trade, environmental and climate problems, human
rights are in fact international,
• The Westphalian model, 1648 :
• - nation-state sovereignty vs. International law,
• - mutual respect and peaceful co-existence,
• - international law: - cooperation among states, peace by non-intervention and respect for
sovereignty,
• - on a minmum level: - boundaries, trade tariffs,
• The UN model 1945 :
• - an increased ambition of cooperation :
• - more economic, social and cultural cooperation
in ordfer to achieve peace,
• - international human rights : 1948 UN
Declaration,
• - citizens are also subjects of international law,
• - more comprehensive organizations,
• - a permanent organization: - General Assembly
and Security Council, with powers to ”determine
the existence of any threat to peace”,
• The Cosmopolitan model :
• The realization that many political and economic problems
cross the boundaries of the nation-states, and also need
to be solved as cross-boundary,
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- an increased ambition of international cooperation,
- increased trade, and trade treaties,
- financial markets are inter- and transnational,
- cross-boundary environmental and climate problems,
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- cultural exchanges and communication,
- international migration,
- international standards for human rights :
The individual has a place in international law,
A significant increase in international treaties,
organizations, courts, corporations etc.
• International law
• – the law between nation-states, (UN)
• - in substance, - and in legal validity.
• Supranational law
• - law by international organizations which has been
delegated specific parts of the constitutional power of the
nation-states, (EU)
• - the legislation has direct effect on citizens,
• Transnational law
• - law or legal practice which has been developped
among non-state actors, - such as experts, NGOs,
standardization committes, (ISO)
• - lex mercatoria : private international law
• International law
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– the law between nation-states, (UN)
- international treaties between states,
- customary law and basic principles (jus cogens),
Traditionally the law is in substance – between states, but
increasingly it deals with matters also internally to the
states :
- trade law, evironmental and climate law,
- international human rights
The law is legally valid directly only between the states,
To be applied nationally – to the citizens directly – it has to
be made national law,
Often without courts and inefficient sanctions,
Conflicts among states: International Court of Justice,
• Supranational law :
• - law by international organizations which has been
delegated specific parts of the constitutional power of the
member nation-states, (EU)
• - the legislation concerns and has direct effect on
citizens,
• The EU as case :
• - legal substance: - the free movement of goods,
services, persons and capital, - competition law, environm. law, etc
• - Executive and administrative powers : the Commission.
• - national implementation,
• - legal control and review : European Court of Justice, working efficiently as a court,
• - citizens are directly affected,
• - human rights are implied,
• Transnational law :
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- guidelines, soft-law, legal practice,
- international standardization,
- expert groups,
- second-level organs of governing bodies
(cooperative committees),
• - INGOs
• - transnational corporations,
• - Lex Mercatoria, - global private law regimes,
• New treaties and international
organizations, post 1945 – legal
globalization :
• the UN – 1945, - increasing ambitions for international
political and legal cooperation, - the UN Charter, the
Security Council, art.39,
• Sub-UN: - FAO, WHO, UNICEF, UNDP, UNCTAD,
• European Convention of Human Rights, 1950, - and its
Court, the Council of Europe,
• The Universal Declaration and the UN Conventions on
Human Rights,
New treaties and organizations, economic :
• GATT, 1947, (the Washington Consensus)
• IMF,
• the World Bank,
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• WTO/GATT
• the Dispute Settlement Understanding (DSU),
1992,
• WTO : - TBT, SPS, TRIPS, 1992,
New treaties and organizations, trade, evironment :
• The European Community, 1958, - the Rome treaty, creating a common market, and closer cooperation
among the peoples of Europe, - new and more ambitious
institutions: The Council, the Commission, the Court, 1986 : qualified majority voting, Single European Act, 1992 – Maastricht (the Euro), Schengen, Amsterdam,
Nice……
• Other regional (similar) treaties,
• The environment : Stockholm, 1971, and Rio
Declarations, 1992,
• The climate : - the UN Framework Convention on Climate
Change, - the Kyoto protocol,
• The International Criminal Court, ICC, 2004,
Types of international organizations :
• International organizations – based on international law,
• - with sovereign nation-states as members,
• Regional organizations - nation states as members,
• Standardization organizations – industrial organizations
as members,
• Other types of expertise based organizations,
• Professional organizations – individual members,
• International NGOS – individual members and groups,
• Transnational corporations
• The factual independence of secretariats of
international organizations,
• The new legal regimes, combinations of :
• Include national, inter-, supra- and transnational law.
• Comprehensive transferals of supranational legal powers
to the EU, - legislation by the Council and the EUparliament,
• An increasing number of functioning and efficient courts
• International treaties on environmental law,
• WTO-law – regulating international markets, with a courtlike dispute resolution system, and effective economic
sanctions,
• ECHR, - functioning court with binding, but not
sanctionable decisions,
• UN human rights committees,
• International regulations on asylum and international
migration,
• Climate change regimes with strict regulations.
• International Criminal Court – individual responsibility,
The UN
• From ”the great powers” to all member states,
• Goals :
• - peacekeeping, security, - deal with international
disputes, - economic/social cooperation, - human rights,
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General Assembly, - all members,
- political forum for discussions,
Security Council, - 15 members,
- decisionmaking power,
- 5 permanent members with veto power,
Secretariat and the General Secretary
International Court of Justice,
• Peace and security :
• - the lack of an ”army” at the disposal of the UN,
• - UN Charter ch.VII, art.39
• - ”The Security Council shall determine the existence of
any threat to the peace, breach of peace or act of
aggression and shall recommendations or decide what
measures to be taken in accordance with art.41 and 42.”
• Art. 41 – measures not involving use of armed force,
• Art. 42 – measures involving armed forces, if necessary,
• Example : - The Iraq – Kuwait conflict 1990/91,
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- The Iraq war, 2003 - ,
• Resolutions may the SC decide ”when there are acts of
aggression” and where ”armed forces” may be used,
• Failures: - Middle East, Kashmir, Darfur, Somalia etc.
• UN SC Resolution 1441 (2002) on Iraq :
• - ”…that Iraq has been and remains in material
breach of its obligations under relevant
resolution (687) (1991), in particular Iraq´s failure
to cooperate with UN inspectors and the
IAEA….”
• - ”….final opportunity to comply….”
• Human Rights :
• - 1948 – The Universal Declaration of International
Human Rights,
• - 1966 – The two covenants of Economic, Social and
Cultural Rights, and Civil and Political Rights,
• - Later : Covenants on the elimination of discrimination
against women, - on the protection of the rights of
children, - on the elimination of discrimination,
• Monitoring :
• - reports submitted by the States,
• - Inter-state complaints,
• - monitoring committees,
• Human rights :
• - national sovereignty vs. human rights,
• - individual/integrity, - political/civil, - social and
economic, - cultural rights ?
• - law – politics – morals/ethics ?
• Consensus :
• - respect for human dignity,
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- rights of groups and peoples,
- no racial discrimination,
- states must not engage in grave h.r. violations,
- the international community may be justified in
intervening by peaceful means,
• Economic and social cooperation :
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ECOSOC – Economic and Social Council,
- 1974 – The New international economic order,
- several UN sub-organizations :
- UNICEF
- FAO, WHO,
- UNCTAD,
- UNDP,
- Emergency and Relief work,
• The work to abolish colonialism,
• Example : South Rhodesia/Zimbabwe,
• Disarmament,
• The further development of international law,
• The Kantian vs. the Grotian model of the UN,
The EU
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- regional,
- supranational – transferred and comprehensive powers,
- free movement of goods, services, persons, capital,
- competition law,
- environmental law,
- police, asylum cooperation,
Direct effect for citizens,
Nationstate implementation,
The Commission
The Council
- the European Council,
The Parliament,
The Court,
Multi-level governance,
• EU – constitutionalization of
international law?
• - comprehensive powers,
• - enumerated powers,
• - vertical integration,
• - functioning courts,
• - judicial review,
• - judicial, but not legislative comptencecompetence,
WTO
• GATT – 1947 ,
• - ”general elimination of quantitative restrictions”,
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WTO 1992
Dispute settlement understanding
- Panel and Appellate Body,
From ”diplomatic to judicial problemsolving”,
Cases : - meat hormones (97), GMO (2006)
SPS, TBT,
TRIPS,
United Nations Framework on Climate Change
and Control, Kyoto Protocol :
• - goal : to achieve stabilization or reduction of
greenhouse gas concentration in the
atmosphere,
• - present and future generations,
• - precaution, - sustainable development,
• - developed and developing countries,
• - market-based instruments,
ICC – International Criminal Court
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- individual responsibility for state leaders,
- autonomus international court,
- ”crimes against humanity, mass murders etc.”
Ruwanda and Yugoslavia tribunals,
New aspects of international law :
• The increasing internationalization and
globalization of law,
• - treaties and organizations,
• Functioning international courts,
• - WTO/DSB, - ICJ, - ICC, - ECJ, - ECHR,
• Multi-level governance,
• - several levels of government and governing working
together, but not always coordinated,
• The fragmentation of law,
• - not one constitution, but several parallel treaties,
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- 125 tribunals or courts,
- more effective and competing courts,
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Regime collisions :
- WTO / WHO,
- UN / WTO,
- ICJ / ICTY,
- EU / ECHR,
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Transnational communities, lex Mercatoria,
- professional, technical, expertise bodies,
- developing international standards,
- examples : ISO, Helsinki declaration,
Patent Protection for medicines / WTO :
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TRIPS – Trade-related intellectual property rights,
- national treatment, most-favoured-nation treatment,
Transnational medical corporations,
Patents on medicines, to pay for investment,
Problem : - economic differences rich/poor countries,
- HIV/Aids situation,
- South-Africa, Brazil etc.
Members may grant compulsory licences, - particularlly in
cases of national emergency – understood as public
health crisis,
• Exceptions were made : - Brazilian companies were
allowed to produce copy-medicine,
• Ownership to and regulation of the Internet :
• - US National Telecommunications and Administration recognized
(NTIA),1998, Internet Corporation of Assigned Names and Numbers,
ICANN, as a representative and self-regulatory organization, with
delegated authority to issue domain-names for the net, (.com, .org,
.dk), - www.icann.org,
• An adress-, name- and landcode organization,
• ICANN has membership-areas with different public and private
organizations, and individuals as members, - who are presumed to
contribute actively to the maintainance of the net,
• Root servers – the technical infrastructure,
• ICANN – as functioning network-organization,
• With a government-appointed Advisory Committee,
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• 2005 : World Summit of the Information Society :
• - USA vs. UN as responsible for the regulation of the internet,
• - EU active in changing the regulation of the net,
• - criticism of ICANN´s lack of legal sanctions,