Transcript REGIONAL CHALLENGES OF SOFT SECURITY – THEORY AND …

REGIONAL CHALLENGES OF SOFT
SECURITY – THEORY AND PRACTICE
J. Martin
Lecture materials
The EEB is a federation of more than 140 environmental citizens’ organisations based in all EU Member States
and most Accession Countries, as well as in a few neighbouring countries. These organisations range from
local and national, to European and international. The aim of the EEB is to protect and improve the environment
of Europe and to enable the citizens of Europe to play their part in achieving that goal.
AGRICULTURE
•
Through the formation of the
Agriculture Working Group, the
EEB has created a unique place
where environmentalists from
across the continent can
discuss agriculture and forestry
issues from their different
perspectives. Representatives
of organisations from 11 EU
Member States, as well as a
number of international
organisations, such as Birdlife
International and WWF (World
Wide Fund for Nature) come
together within the group to coordinate national pressure to
green the EU’s agricultural
policy.
AGRICULTURE
The EEB is continuing to be heavily involved in
preparing for the mid-term review of the Common
Agriculture Policy (CAP) reform, which will take
place in 2003. Since its implementation, the CAP of
the EU has been partly responsible for tremendous
environmental problems, and has contributed to the
depletion of biodiversity. Policies to promote
production further are still strongly in evidence, and
continue to put pressure on the environment.
Incentives to encourage more sound environmental
management of agricultural land do exist and work,
but funds for such measures are very small
compared to those for production and markets. In
addition, some green incentives are optional for
member states. During the mid-term review, the EEB
will push for a shift in support from intensive
production to environmentally friendly farming,
embedded in a sustainable rural development policy.
AGRICULTURE
• There is a growing interest to stop or
suspend the use of Genetically Modified
Organisms (GMO) in agriculture. The EEB
is being expected to provide co-ordination
and leadership in this field, and aims to
prevent any risk of GMOs negatively
affecting biodiversity and food quality both
inside Europe and in other parts of the
world.
AGRICULTURE
• Set the stage for a further reform of the CAP agenda in
the mid-term review of Agenda 2000. A new CAP should
include environmental, as well as social, regional, and
international interests, and focus on food safety, security,
and diversity. In particular the mid-term review should
lead to:
– a widespread sense of urgency in the EU for a
fundamental reform of the CAP;
– compulsory environmental conditions to all CAPpayments according to a set of general guidelines for
good agricultural practice to be developed by the
Commission;
– a marked shift in EU-funding from production to
landscape and nature protection, resulting in
earmarking of 10% of the CAP budget for agrienvironmental measures by 2004 (current share is
3%, not formally earmarked).
AIR POLLUTION
• Burning fuel releases
many toxins which are
harmful to the
environment and human
health. It is estimated
that, globally, some
800,000 deaths per year
are due to air pollution,
with 80% of these deaths
occurring in developing
countries.
AIR POLLUTION
• In recent decades, much has been done to reduce air
pollution in the industrialised parts of the world,
particularly through use of improved technological
standards. In Europe, for example, emissions of sulphur
dioxide have been significantly reduced, and emissions
of nitrogen oxides, volatile organic compounds and
ammonia are also beginning to decline. Abatement
efforts must continue, however, in order to counter
factors such as greater industrial production, weak or unenforced regulation, and increases in the number and
annual mileage of cars on the road.
AIR POLLUTION
• The World Health Organisation estimates that illnesses tied to
particulate air pollution rank among the top ten causes of death in
developed countries. Thus, the costs to society of air pollution are
extremely high. This was highlighted by a recent study by the WHO
that estimated that in France, Switzerland, and Austria, air pollution
was responsible for 6% of total mortality, resulting in more than
40,000 attributable cases of death per year - half of which were
directly linked to emissions from motorised vehicles. Traffic was also
estimated to account each year for more than 25,000 new cases of
chronic bronchitis in adults, 290,000 episodes of bronchitis in
children, 0.5 million asthma attacks and 16 million personal days of
restricted activities. The health costs of air pollution for these three
countries were estimated to amount to approximately 1.7% of the
gross domestic product.
AIR POLLUTION
• Clean air is one of the ongoing and future
priority areas of EU environmental policy.
The EEB has been involved in the
development of EU air pollution legislation
for many years and continues to follow the
development of EU legislation relating to air
pollution through the EU institutions.
Air pollution and overlaps with
climate change
• Burning fuel releases many toxins which are
harmful to the environment and human health. It
is estimated that, globally, some 800,000 deaths
per year are due to air pollution, with 80% of
these deaths occurring in developing countries.
A working group convened by the World Health
Organisation (WHO) and the World Resources
Institute (WRI) estimates that by 2020, about
700,000 of these premature deaths (largely due
to particulate exposure) would be prevented
annually if moderate greenhouse gas emission
reduction policies were implemented.
Air pollution and overlaps with
climate change
• Air pollution not only claims lives but is also
culpable of widespread illness and suffering to.
The health effects of polluted air include chronic
bronchitis, lung cancer, cardiovascular disease,
pneumonia, chronic obstructive pulmonary
disease and asthma. Thus burning less fuel can
reduce the impact of climate change and healthdamaging air pollution, and often yields large
cost savings too. Some of the dangerous air
pollutants released as a result of fuel
combustion are also greenhouse gases and so
contribute to anthropogenic climate change.
BIODIVERSITY
• Biodiversity in the EU,
and increasingly in
the New Member
Countries as well, is
continually coming
under serious threat.
BIODIVERSITY
• Developing infrastructures, the rise in mobility,
urban sprawl, agricultural practices and tourism
are all reducing and fragmenting the space for
ecosystems and species. There continues to be
a steady decline in the quality of biodiversity,
despite the adoption of a number of potentially
powerful Directives, such as the Birds Directive,
the Habitats Directive with its provision to
establish the "Natura 2000" network, and the
1998 Commission Communication on a
Community Biodiversity Strategy.
EU Chemicals Policy
• Tens of thousands of
industrial chemicals
are currently on the
market and also used
in products without
having been checked
for potential effects on
human health and the
environment!
EU Chemicals Policy
• Existing European chemicals legislation does not deliver.
It does not provide sufficient knowledge of, or public
information about, the chemicals in use, and it is
ineffective in controlling dangerous substances.
Following pressure from Governments, the EU
Commission and many environmental organisations, the
EU is now entering into a major debate on the reform of
a flawed system. Now it is up to the policy makers to
address the insufficient - and irresponsible – level of
attention which has been given to chemicals. We cannot
continue to conduct an "in vivo experiment with human
health and nature", while observing that chemicalsrelated diseases are increasing.
EU Chemicals Policy
• Hazardous chemicals continuously
accumulate in our bodies, contaminate
human breast milk and pollute even
remote regions of the world!
EU Chemicals Policy
• The European Commission produced an evaluation
report on the three main Directives and one Regulation
of the chemicals legislation (November 1998), which
confirmed the failure of the present system. It concluded
that work should begin on the development of an
integrated and coherent approach to a new EU
Chemicals Policy; one which adequately reflects the
precautionary principle and the principle of sustainability.
In June 1999, the Environment Council acknowledged
that a fundamental review of EU Chemicals Policy was
needed and gave a clear mandate to the Commission to
take the appropriate measures. The Council
acknowledged the importance of the Helsinki and
OSPAR conventions and the fact that the Community
should make major contributions to ensure that these
international obligations are met.
EU Chemicals Policy
• As a result, the Commission, in February
2001, adopted a White Paper on the
strategy for a future Chemicals Policy. It
introduced the REACH (Registration
Evaluation and Authorisation of
Chemicals) designed to ensure a "high
level of protection of human health and the
environment" following the Precautionary
Principle.
EU Chemicals Policy
• The EEB, together with the European Consumers Organisation
(BEUC), Friends of the Earth, WWF and many other environment
and consumer NGOs, support five key demands which they would
like to see reflected in the new EU Chemicals Policy. These are the
following:
• 1. A full right to know, including which chemicals are present in
products.
2. A deadline by which all chemicals on the market must have their
safety assessed by independent experts. All uses of a chemical
should be approved and should be demonstrated to be safe beyond
reasonable doubt.
3. A phase-out of persistent or bio-accumulative chemicals.
4. A requirement to substitute less safe chemicals with safer
alternatives.
5. A commitment to stop all releases to the environment of
hazardous substances by 2020.
EU Chemicals Policy
• Pesticides substances are also chemicals, but they are addressed in
a separate Directive (91/414/EEC) the Pesticides Authorisation
Directive. This authorisation scheme is subject to various critiques. It
lacks transparency, an evaluation of toxicity, an assessment of the
combined effects of various chemicals, and a promotion of reduced
pesticides use. After 10 years, according to the Directive, products
are re-evaluated for further market availability, but due to procedural
weaknesses, the deadlines for such re-evaluation are presently
unreachable (60 substances out of 600 planned for 2003) and risks
are not minimised. Facing these problems, a revision of this
Directive is in process. The EEB and the Pesticides Action Network
are asking for a paradigm shift in the Pesticides Authorisation
process. This requires putting the burden of proof upon pesticides
producers, implementing the precautionary principle by banning
hazardous pesticides ingredients and guaranteeing an open and
transparent pesticides assessment procedure.
CLIMATE CHANGE AND
ENERGY
• The EEB considers
the fight against
climate change to be
one of the most
important challenges
facing today’s world,
and believes the EU
must be willing to take
the lead in helping to
combat this global
crisis.
CLIMATE CHANGE AND
ENERGY
• In order to deal with this problem, our societies
must begin to re-examine their global
responsibilities, and take drastic steps toward
reducing energy use. Climate change is not an
issue that can be dealt with through
technological "fixes" alone (although ecoefficiency should remain a top priority). It also
needs to lead to changes in production and
consumption patterns in the areas of transport,
energy, agriculture and industry.
CLIMATE CHANGE AND
ENERGY
• The Kyoto Protocol has presented the EU with the
challenging task of reducing the level of greenhouse
gases in the atmosphere by 8% over the next decade. It
represents a strong incentive for a shift in energy
policies: from supply security to demand side
management, from fossil fuels use to renewable and
safe energy systems. While this alone is not nearly
enough to stabilise climate change, it will be quite an
achievement in political terms. The EU has agreed to
realise a substantial part of this task within its own
geographical area, but it is looking for ways to pay rather
than reduce as well, through the so-called flexible
mechanisms, which would allow Europe to buy carbon
dioxide emissions "credits" from other countries to help
meet its reduction goal.
CLIMATE CHANGE AND
ENERGY
AIMS:
• To encourage the EU to fulfill its Kyoto commitments with domestic
policies and measures, whilst minimising the use of flexible
mechanisms, and preparing for larger reductions of greenhouse
gases at a later stage.
* To promote energy conservation and the increased use of
renewable sources through a mix of instruments, including
ecological tax reform, strict norms for energy users, and shift of
subsidies towards sound energy-producing and -using systems.
• * To contribute to the climate change campaign by highlighting links
between climate and lifestyles, waste, agriculture, air pollution, and
integrated pollution prevention and control.
ENLARGEMENT
• In 2004, ten more
countries are
expected to joined the
EU (with Romania,
Bulgaria and Turkey
joining later). This will
have a major impact
on the new Member
States as well as on
the current EU.
ENLARGEMENT
• This enlargement certainly has positive
potential. It can help the new member
countries to accelerate their environmental
policies and practice. It can also expand
the impact of positive EU-wide policies
across larger parts of Europe.
ENLARGEMENT
• However, it is clear that enlargement also brings
potential threats to both future and existing members.
The consumption patterns predominant in Western
Europe are attractive for the Accession Countries, but
they increase pressures on the environment. Western
concepts of deregulation, privatisation and
commercialisation may endanger existing practices of
biodiversity protection, public transport schemes, and
agricultural practices. Vast investments in infrastructure
may also bring serious and long-lasting environmental
impoverishment.
ENLARGEMENT
• Another threat not to be underestimated is the slowingdown of EU environmental and sustainable development
policies, as these new countries are entering the EU with
weaker environmental policies than the current average.
• The enlargement process is of great importance for
environmentalists for several reasons: firstly, it is
important for the environment and for biodiversity in the
Accession Countries. Secondly, it may affect the
chances of sustainable development policies for the
European Union as it stands at present, as the
Accession Countries need to be brought up to the level
of the EU’s current environmental standards.
ENVIRONMENTAL ACTION
PROGRAMMES
• The European
Commission
produces
Environmental Action
Programmes (EAPs)
as an outline for the
EU’s environmental
policies over the next
decade.
ENVIRONMENTAL ACTION
PROGRAMMES
• The latest EAP produced by the
Commission is the 6th Environmental
Action Programme. This programme is
particularly important, as it will function
as the EU’s guide on environmental
policy during the era of enlargement.
ENVIRONMENTAL LIABILITY
• Environmental liability
- the policy of holding
polluters responsible
for the damage that
they do to the
environment - is now
in the spotlight.
ENVIRONMENTAL LIABILITY
• Following the disasters at Baia Mare (the
Romanian cyanide spillover) and Donana,
Spain, and in light of the emerging
controversy over GMOs, there is now a
greater need than ever for a strict policy
on environmental liability – one which
incorporates the "Polluter Pays Principle"
into EU law and turns precaution into a
business objective.
ENVIRONMENTAL LIABILITY
• It is a stated goal of the EU to "introduce
effective rules to prevent environmental damage,
to ensure that damage is restored and to make
those responsible for any significant damage
pay." It is clear that companies must be held
liable for the damage which they cause, and
must not be allowed to transfer responsibility to
public authorities and force society at large (the
taxpayers and third parties) to bear the cost of
environmental damage.
ENVIRONMENTAL LIABILITY
• The adoption of a strict policy on environmental
liability would be an important tool in helping to
prevent companies from engaging in the kind of
irresponsible behaviour that leads to future
tragedies. Environmental risks should be
reflected in production costs so that the market
can play a role in minimising risk. Strict liability is
an important element of making the market work
on behalf of the environment, and a key part of
"getting the prices right" - a stated goal of the
Commission’s Sustainable Development
Strategy.
INTEGRATION
• The Treaty of Amsterdam(1997), in Article 6,
requires all EU policies to integrate
environmental interests. In 1998, the European
Council meeting in Cardiff requested that all
Council formations develop integration
strategies. These were begun for energy,
transport, and agriculture. At a later stage,
industry, internal market, development, fisheries,
economic and fiscal affairs, and General Affairs
were also invited to deliver such integration
strategies. Based on the 1998 summit, this is
now known as the ‘Cardiff Process’.
INTEGRATION
• Despite entering its fifth year, the Cardiff
Process is still very much in its infancy,
both in terms of content and with respect
to the institutional embedding and
implementation. The content of the
sectoral strategies delivered so far is of
varying quality, and generally lacks such
essential elements as clear objectives,
targets, instruments, and timetables.
NOISE
• Noise pollution, which can be defined as
unwanted sounds caused by traffic (road,
rail, and aircraft), industrial, and leisure
activities, is currently an issue of great
concern for Europeans, and is the only
environmental impact for which complaints
have increased since 1992.
NOISE
• Many citizens live in areas where noise levels
are disturbingly high, affecting both health and
overall quality of life in a number of places.
Though the specific effects of noise on individual
human health are difficult to establish, due to the
fact that each individual’s sensitivity to noise is
highly variable, recent studies show that noise is
a major source of stress. Noise also increases
the stress already present from difficult social,
familial or professional relationships and can
intensify the development of mental disorders,
among other numerous negative effects.
NOISE
• Controlling this form of pollution has begun to become a
priority in recent years, as science makes progress in
establishing how much harm noise actually causes. In
response to this issue; the European Commission
adopted a directive on Environmental in July 2001 (COM
(2000) 468). While the Commission’s proposal on noise
was a good initiative, it was felt to be lacking in areas
such as:
• Limits for specific noise sources,
• Neighborhood and workplace noise
• Noise mapping and planning for sensitive areas other
than highly populated agglomerations and
• Addressing particularly chronic sources of noise such as
small but noisy airports or seasonal sources in road and
rail
PRODUCT POLICY
• In December 1998, the European Commission
initiated a broad discussion on Integrated
Product Policy (IPP) and this can be considered
as the starting point for discussions on product
oriented policies. Later on, in 1999, the Informal
Council in Weimar endorsed the idea of such a
policy and decided on some positive guidelines.
Integrated Product Policy is the policy where the
environmental impacts that a product may have
throughout its whole life cycle are being
considered from the design phase, from cradle
to grave.
REVISION OF THE EU TREATY
• The European Council
meeting in Laeken, in
December 2001, set up a
Convention to prepare
proposals for a
substantial revision of the
EU Treaties. The main
objective is the
forthcoming enlargement,
but other issues are
involved, such as the
growing complexity of EU
decision-making caused
by successive Treaty
changes.
REVISION OF THE EU TREATY
• The Convention can have a major impact on the
areas that the EU will deal with in the future. The
issues include: which policies are to be
decentralised (subsidiarity), the principles that
will be followed in decision-making, the basic
citizens’ rights that need to be respected and
protected, and what the format for public
involvement should be. So this is potentially
extremely important for the environmental
movement.
STANDARTIZATION
• The Greenbook of the
Commission on
Integrated Product Policy
(IPP) and the Resolution
of the Environmental
Council from June 2000,
envisage a role for
standardisation in
implementing IPP. This
requires the participation
of all stakeholders,
including environmental
NGOs.
STANDARTISATION
• The New Approach of the EU to implement
European legislation by delegating dealings with
technical issues to standards bodies entails the
need for stakeholder participation. The EEB has
traditionally been active in several important
product policy issues, especially within the
Ecolabel Regulation and Standardisation. Until
April 2000, it participated in the Strategic
Advisory Board for the Environment (SABE) of
CEN (European Standardisation Committee) on
the integration of environmental concerns into
product standards.