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Pathogenicity and
Diseases:
Diseases of the
Respiratory
System
The Respiratory System
Microbial Diseases of the Upper Respiratory Tract
Microbial Diseases of the Lower Respiratory Tract
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Pathogenicity and Diseases: Diseases of the Res... > The Respiratory System
The Respiratory System
• Functional Anatomy of the Respiratory System
• The Vestibular System
• Airborne Transmission of Disease
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Pathogenicity and Diseases: Diseases of the Res... > The Respiratory System
Functional Anatomy of the Respiratory System
• Ventilation occurs under the control of the autonomic nervous system from parts
of the brain stem; the medulla oblongata and the pons, collectively forming the
respiration regulatory center.
• Inhalation is initiated by the diaphragm and supported by the external intercostal
muscles; additional accessory muscles include sternocleidomastoid, platysma,
scalene muscles of the neck, pectoral muscles and latissimus dorsi.
• When the diaphragm contracts, the ribcage expands and the contents of the
abdomen are moved downward, resulting in a larger thoracic volume and negative
pressure (with respect to atmospheric pressure) inside the thorax.
• Exhalation is generally a passive process since the lungs have a natural elasticity
Bronchial anatomy
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they recoil from the stretch of inhalation and air flows back out until the pressures
in the chest and the atmosphere reach equilibrium.
• Gas exchange occurs at the alveoli, the tiny sacs which are the basic functional
component of the lungs.
• Gas exchange facilitates oxygenation of the blood with a concomitant removal of
carbon dioxide and other gaseous metabolic wastes from the circulation, while
acid-base balance is maintained by homeostasis.
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Pathogenicity and Diseases: Diseases of the Res... > The Respiratory System
The Vestibular System
• The vestibular system uses hair cells, as does the auditory system, but it excites
them in different ways.
• There are five vestibular receptor organs in the inner ear (the vestibular labyrinth):
the utricle, the saccule, and three semicircular canals; the utricle and saccule
respond to acceleration in a straight line, such as gravity.
• The bending of the stereocilia stimulates specific neurons that signal to the brain
that the head is tilted, allowing the maintenance of balance.
• The fluid-filled semicircular canals are tubular loops set at oblique angle, arranged
in three spatial planes; the base of each canal contains a cluster of hair cells that
Vestibular labrynth
monitor angular acceleration and deceleration from rotation.
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• Neuronal projections to the temporal cortex account for feelings of dizziness;
projections to autonomic nervous system areas in the brainstem account for
motion sickness; and projections to the primary somatosensory cortex monitor
subjective measurements of the external world and self-movement.
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Pathogenicity and Diseases: Diseases of the Res... > The Respiratory System
Airborne Transmission of Disease
• Airborne transmission results in the inhalation of pathogens that can affect an
individual's respiratory system or the rest of the body.
• Airborne diseases are caused by pathogens which can ride on either dust
particles or small respiratory droplets that can stay suspended in the air and travel
distances on air currents.
• Airborne diseases are commonly seen in unsanitary household conditions and
overcrowded areas, and thrive in areas of poverty and poor hygienic conditions.
Airborne transmission
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Pathogenicity and Diseases: Diseases of the Res... > Microbial Diseases of the Upper Respiratory Tract
Microbial Diseases of the Upper Respiratory Tract
• Otitis Media
• Sinusitis
• Colds
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Pathogenicity and Diseases: Diseases of the Res... > Microbial Diseases of the Upper Respiratory Tract
Otitis Media
• Bacterial-caused earaches are often due to Streptococcus pneumoniae, a
common bacterial infection.
• Trimeric Autotransporter Adhesins on the surface of bacteria are the proteins
responsible for earaches.
• TAA proteins bind to host cells, allowing the invading bacteria to transfer virulence
factors which then cause inflammation of the middle ear.
Acute Otitis Media
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Pathogenicity and Diseases: Diseases of the Res... > Microbial Diseases of the Upper Respiratory Tract
Sinusitis
• Sinusitis is inflammation of the paranasal sinuses, which may be due to infection,
allergy, or autoimmune issues.
• Sinusitis can be classified by duration (acute or chronic) and by location
(maxillary, frontal, ethmoid, and sphenoid).
• Chronic sinusitis lasts longer than three months and can be caused by many
different diseases that share chronic inflammation of the sinuses as a common
symptom.
• Sinus infection can spread through veins or by direct extension to close structures
and may result in complications.
• Chronic sinusitis lasts longer than three months and can be caused by many
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different diseases that share chronic inflammation of the sinuses as a common
symptom.
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Pathogenicity and Diseases: Diseases of the Res... > Microbial Diseases of the Upper Respiratory Tract
Colds
• Over 200 virus types have been found that cause the common cold, with
rhinoviruses being the most common.
• Rhinoviruses are a sub-type of picornavirus, a non-enveloped RNA virus, which is
very small in size.
• The symptoms of the common cold are not due to the viral infection directly but
rather the bodies response to the virus.
• There is no cure for the common cold, and in fact antibiotics which often
prescribed are detrimental to patients.
Coronaviruses
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Pathogenicity and Diseases: Diseases of the Res... > Microbial Diseases of the Lower Respiratory Tract
Microbial Diseases of the Lower Respiratory Tract
• Whooping Cough
• Diphtheria
• Scarlet Fever
• Bacterial Pneumonias
• Tuberculosis
• Pharyngitis
• Coryza and Influenza
• Viral Pneumonia
• Respiratory Syncytial Virus Infection
• Histoplasmosis
• Coccidiomycosis
• Other Fungi Involved in Respiratory Disease
• Blastomycosis
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Pathogenicity and Diseases: Diseases of the Res... > Microbial Diseases of the Lower Respiratory Tract
Whooping Cough
• Whooping cough is caused by the bacteria Bordetella pertussis, which infects the
respiratory system.
• There is no zoonotic reservoir of Bordetella pertussis, meaning that humans
appear to be the only host of this bacteria.
• Bordetella pertussis produces a number of virulence factors, notably Ptx, which
inhibits the ability of phagocytes to respond to infections. This helps Bordetella
pertussis spread throughout a host.
Graph of y=x^3
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Pathogenicity and Diseases: Diseases of the Res... > Microbial Diseases of the Lower Respiratory Tract
Diphtheria
• Diptheria is caused bu the bacteria Corynebacterium diphtheriae, and is easily
treated with antibiotics. It is now a fairly rare disease in developed countries.
• If left untreated and if infected by a bacteriophage, then Corynebacterium
diphtheriae produces toxins that can lead to mortality.
• Diphtheria toxinis comprised of two fragments, fragment A and fragment B;.
Fragment B binds to the target cell surface and allows entry into cells through
endosomes; fragment A inhibits protein translation.
• Fragment A inhibits protein synthesis by catalyzing EF-2 a protein essential for
tRNA movement during protein translation.
Graph of y=x^2
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Pathogenicity and Diseases: Diseases of the Res... > Microbial Diseases of the Lower Respiratory Tract
Scarlet Fever
• Scarlet fever usually affects children. Historically, it had devastating effects.
• While antibiotics are effective against scarlet fever, the illness is actually caused
by a bacteriophage infecting Streptococcus that has infected a person.
• The bacteriophage T12 inserts into the genome of Streptococcus. This leads to
the expression of an exotoxin, which causes scarlet fever.
Scarlet Fever
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Pathogenicity and Diseases: Diseases of the Res... > Microbial Diseases of the Lower Respiratory Tract
Bacterial Pneumonias
• Most cases of pneumonia are caused by bacterial infections, and most of the
bacterial infections are caused by the bacteria Streptococcus pneumoniae.
• The bacteria that cause pneumonia are split into three groups, gram-negative,
gram-positive and atypical.
• Alcoholism is asociated with Streptococcus pneumoniae induced pneumonia and
smoking exacerbates the situation.
Bacterial pneumonia
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Pathogenicity and Diseases: Diseases of the Res... > Microbial Diseases of the Lower Respiratory Tract
Tuberculosis
• Tuberculosis is spread through the air when people who have an active TB
infection cough, sneeze, or otherwise transmit their saliva through the air.
• The classic symptoms of active TB infection are a chronic cough with blood-tinged
sputum, fever, night sweats, and weight loss.
• Diagnosis of active TB relies on radiology (commonly chest x-rays) as well as
microscopic examination and microbiological culture of body fluids. Diagnosis of
latent TB relies on the Mantoux tuberculin skin test.
• Antibiotic resistance is a growing problem in the treatment of tuberculosis.
Electron micrograph of Mycobacterium
tuberculosis.
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Pathogenicity and Diseases: Diseases of the Res... > Microbial Diseases of the Lower Respiratory Tract
Pharyngitis
• In most cases, pharyngitis is caused by a systemic viral infection and is typified by
a painful swelling inflammation of the throat. This can cause difficulty swallowing
or breathing.
• The most common bacterial cause of pharyngitis is streptococcus.
• Several types of bacteria can cause pharyngitis. The most common and effective
treatment for these infections are antibiotics.
Streptococcal pharyngitis
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Pathogenicity and Diseases: Diseases of the Res... > Microbial Diseases of the Lower Respiratory Tract
Coryza and Influenza
• The most common symptoms of the disease are chills, fever, sore throat, muscle
pains, severe headache, coughing, weakness/fatigue, and general discomfort.
• Influenza is transmitted through the air by coughs or sneezes, by direct contact
with bird droppings or nasal secretions, or through contact with contaminated
surfaces.
• Coryza is a word describing the symptoms of a cold and refers to the
inflammation of the mucous membranes lining the nasal cavity which usually
gives rise to the symptoms of congestion.
Symptoms of influenza
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Pathogenicity and Diseases: Diseases of the Res... > Microbial Diseases of the Lower Respiratory Tract
Viral Pneumonia
• Viral pneumonia is caused by both viral infection which leads to cell death. The
body's response to clear the cellular debris leads to further inflammation and the
blockage of respiration.
• Many different viruses can cause viral pneumonia, but they all enter the lungs and
damage the alveoli.
• The best prevention for viral pneumonia is to vaccinate against the viruses that
can cause pneumonia.
Symptoms of pneumonia
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Pathogenicity and Diseases: Diseases of the Res... > Microbial Diseases of the Lower Respiratory Tract
Respiratory Syncytial Virus Infection
• RSV is a single stranded virus, the genome of which encodes 11 proteins which
play different roles in RSV infection.
• RSV can induce syncytia (aggregates of host cells), providing further fertile
ground for RSV to propagate.
• There is no direct treatment of RSV except to mitigate the symptoms, giving the
patient's body time to fight off the infection.
Syncytium
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Pathogenicity and Diseases: Diseases of the Res... > Microbial Diseases of the Lower Respiratory Tract
Histoplasmosis
• Histoplasmosis is s a disease caused by the fungus Histoplasma capsulatum,
which is usually found in soil, and often associated with decaying bat guano or
bird droppings.
• Cases of histoplasmosis have declined acutely since the Industrial Revolution as
quality of life improved dramatically and humans were no longer living in their own
squalor.
• Symptoms of this infection vary greatly, but the disease affects primarily the
lungs. Occasionally, other organs are affected, and it can be fatal if left untreated.
Histoplasmosis
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Pathogenicity and Diseases: Diseases of the Res... > Microbial Diseases of the Lower Respiratory Tract
Coccidiomycosis
• C. immitis resides in the soil in certain parts of the southwestern United States,
northern Mexico, and parts of Central and South America.
• Infection is caused by inhalation of the particles.
• The disease is usually mild, with flu-like symptoms and rashes.
Coccidioidomycosis
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Pathogenicity and Diseases: Diseases of the Res... > Microbial Diseases of the Lower Respiratory Tract
Other Fungi Involved in Respiratory Disease
• In cases of sporotrichosis affecting the lungs, the fungal spores enter through the
respiratory pathways.
• Sporotrichosis progresses slowly - the first symptoms may appear from one to 12
weeks (average three weeks) after the initial exposure to the fungus.
• Forms and symptoms of sporotrichosis include: cutaneous or skin sporotrichosis;
pulmonary sporotrichosis; and disseminated sporotrichosis.
Sporotrichosis
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Pathogenicity and Diseases: Diseases of the Res... > Microbial Diseases of the Lower Respiratory Tract
Blastomycosis
• Infection occurs by inhalation of the fungus from its natural soil habitat.
• Once suspected, the diagnosis of blastomycosis can usually be confirmed by
demonstration of the characteristic, broad-based budding organisms in sputum or
tissues by KOH prep, cytology, or histology.
• Once inhaled in the lungs, Blastomycosis multiply and may disseminate through
the blood and lymphatics to other organs, including the skin, bone, genitourinary
tract, and brain.
Blastomycosis
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Appendix
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Pathogenicity and Diseases: Diseases of the Res...
Key terms
• abscess A cavity caused by tissue destruction, usually because of infection, filled with pus and surrounded by inflamed tissue.
• Alveoli alveolus (plural alveoli) a small air sac in the lungs, where oxygen and carbon dioxide are exchanged with the blood.
• Alveoli alveolus (plural alveoli) a small air sac in the lungs, where oxygen and carbon dioxide are exchanged with the blood.
• apneustic center Located in the lower pons and appears to promote inspiration by stimulation of the neurons in the medulla
oblongata providing a constant stimulus
• apoptosis The process of programmed cell death by which cells undergo an ordered sequence of events which lead to death of
the cell. This occurs during growth and development of the organism, as a part of normal cell aging, or as a response to cellular
injury.
• Blastomycosis Blastomycosis is a fungal infection caused by the organism Blastomyces dermatitidis. Endemic to portions of
North America, blastomycosis causes clinical symptoms similar to histoplasmosis.
• cannula A hose or tube that connects directly to an oxygen (O2) bottle/source from the user's nose, commonly used by aircraft
pilots or others needing a direct oxygen breathing apparatus.
• capsid The outer protein shell of a virus.
• Coccidioidomycosis Coccidioidomycosis is a fungal disease caused by Coccidioides immitis or C. posadasii. It is endemic in
certain parts of Arizona, California, Nevada, New Mexico, Texas, Utah and northwestern Mexico.
• coryza Inflammation of the mucous membranes lining the nasal cavity, usually causing a running nose, nasal congestion, and
loss of smell.
• cytokines Regulatory proteins that function in the regulation of the cells involved in immune system function
• droplet nuclei Droplet nuclei are an important mode of transmission among many infectious viruses such as Influenza A. When
viruses are shed by an infected person through coughing or sneezing into the air, the mucus coating on the virus starts to
evaporate. Once this mucus shell evaporates the remaining viron is called a droplet nucleus or quanta.
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Pathogenicity and Diseases: Diseases of the Res...
• enterotoxin Any of several toxins produced by intestinal bacteria
• Eustachian tube In humans and other land vertebrates, a tube that links the pharynx to the cavity of the middle ear to allow the
equalization of the pressure on both sides of the eardrum.
• exotoxin Any toxin secreted by a microorganism into the surrounding environment.
• fungal Of or pertaining to a fungus or fungi
• fungal Of or pertaining to a fungus or fungi
• fungus Any member of the kingdom Fungi; a eukaryotic organism typically having chitin cell walls but no chlorophyll or plastids.
Fungi may be unicellular or multicellular.
• fungus Any member of the kingdom Fungi; a eukaryotic organism typically having chitin cell walls but no chlorophyll or plastids.
Fungi may be unicellular or multicellular.
• glottis an organ of speech, located in the larynx, and consisting of the true vocal cords and the opening between them
• hemolytic producing hemolysis; destroying red blood cells
• Histoplasmosis Histoplasmosis is a disease caused by the fungus Histoplasma capsulatum. Symptoms of this infection vary
greatly, but the disease primarily affects the lungs. Other organs are occassionally affected; this is called disseminated
histoplasmosis and can be fatal if left untreated.
• hypertonic Having a greater osmotic pressure than another.
• infection An uncontrolled growth of harmful microorganisms in a host.
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Pathogenicity and Diseases: Diseases of the Res...
• influenza An acute contagious disease of the upper airways and lungs, caused by a virus, which rapidly spreads around the
world in seasonal epidemics.
• inhalation The substance (medicament) which is inhaled.
• inhalation The substance (medicament) which is inhaled.
• latent Existing or present but concealed or inactive.
• lymphocytes type of white blood cells in the vertebrate immune system
• paranasal Paranasal sinuses are a group of four paired air-filled spaces that surround the nasal cavity, above the eyes,
between the eyes, and behind the ethmoids.
• peritonsillar abscess Peritonsillar abscess (PTA), also called a quinsy, or abbreviated as a PTA, is a recognized complication of
tonsillitis. It consists of a collection of pus beside the tonsil in what is referred to as Peritonsilar space (Peri - meaning
surrounding).
• pleurisy inflammation of lung pleura
• pneumonia Pneumonia is an inflammatory condition of the lung, affecting primarily the microscopic air sacs known as alveoli.
• pneumotaxic center A network of neurons in the rostral dorsal lateral pons that regulates the respiratory rate; also known as the
pontine respiratory group (PRG).
• polyp An abnormal growth protruding from a mucous membrane.
• prophylactic A medicine that preserves or defends against disease; a preventive.
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Pathogenicity and Diseases: Diseases of the Res...
• ribosylation The attachment of a ribose or ribosyl group to a molecule, especially to a polypeptide or protein
• RNA virus Any of many viruses that possess ribonucleic acid as their genetic material and do not replicate using DNA.
• scarlet fever a streptococcal infection, mainly occurring among children, and characterized by a red skin rash, sore throat and
fever
• serotypes A group of microorganisms characterized by a specific set of antigens; serovar.
• Shine-Dalgarno sequence A ribosomal binding site in the mRNA of prokaryotes.
• Sporotrichosis A disease caused by the infection of the fungus Sporothrix schenckii, usually affecting the skin, although other
rare forms can affect the lungs, joints, bones, and even the brain. Because roses can spread the disease, it is often referred to
as rose-thorn or rose-gardeners' disease.
• sputum Matter coughed up and expectorated from the mouth, composed of saliva and discharges from the respiratory
passages such as mucus, phlegm, or pus.
• stereocilium any of many nonmotile cellular structures resembling long microvilli; those of the inner ear are responsible for
auditory transduction
• translation A process occurring in the ribosome, in which a strand of messenger RNA (mRNA) guides assembly of a sequence
of amino acids to make a protein.
• tuberculosis An infectious disease of humans and animals caused by a species of mycobacterium mainly infecting the lungs
where it causes tubercles characterized by the expectoration of mucus and sputum, fever, weight loss, and chest pain. It is
transmitted through inhalation or ingestion of bacteria.
• tympanic relating to the eardrum or middle ear; tympanal
• ventilation The bodily process of breathing, the inhalation of air to provide oxygen, and the exhalation of spent air to remove
carbon dioxide.
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Pathogenicity and Diseases: Diseases of the Res...
• vestibular system the sensory system in mammals that contributes to movement, sense of balance, and spatial orientation
• vestibulocochlear of or pertaining to the vestibular and cochlear nerves
• zoonotic of or relating to zoonosis, the transmission of an infectious disease between species.
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Pathogenicity and Diseases: Diseases of the Res...
Scarlet Fever
The rosy cheeks and white area around the mouth are typical symptoms of scarlet fever.
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Pathogenicity and Diseases: Diseases of the Res...
Diphtheria toxin induced lesion
Corynebacterium diphtheriae produces toxins that can affect the skin by causing skin lesions, as shown here.
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Pathogenicity and Diseases: Diseases of the Res...
Graph of y=x^3
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Pathogenicity and Diseases: Diseases of the Res...
Test image
test image
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Wikimedia. "Alveolus diagram." Public domain http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pulmonary_alveolus#mediaviewer/File:Alveolus_diagram.svg View on Boundless.com
Pathogenicity and Diseases: Diseases of the Res...
Syncytium
The mass or "ball" of cells in the middle of the image are a syncytium of cells that formed due to infection by the HIV virus.
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Pathogenicity and Diseases: Diseases of the Res...
Coccidioidomycosis
Histopathological changes in a case of coccidioidomycosis of the lung showing a large fibrocaseous nodule.
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Pathogenicity and Diseases: Diseases of the Res...
Symptoms of influenza
Symptoms of influenza with fever and cough the most common symptoms.
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Pathogenicity and Diseases: Diseases of the Res...
Histoplasmosis
This is a Methenamine silver strain of Histoplasma capsulatum that shows histopathologic changes in the histoplasmosis.
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Pathogenicity and Diseases: Diseases of the Res...
Vestibular labrynth
The structure of the vestibular labyrinth is made up of five vestibular receptor organs in the inner ear: the utricle, the saccule, and three semicircular
canals.
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Pathogenicity and Diseases: Diseases of the Res...
Blastomycosis
Blastomyces dermatitidis, the causative agent of blastomycosis.
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Pathogenicity and Diseases: Diseases of the Res...
Acute pulmonary histoplasmosis
This is a chest X-ray of a patient with acute pulmonary histoplasmosis.
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Pathogenicity and Diseases: Diseases of the Res...
The human respiratory system
A complete, schematic view of the human respiratory system with its parts and functions.
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Pathogenicity and Diseases: Diseases of the Res...
Tuberculosis Symptoms.
Diagram depicting various TB symptoms.
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Pathogenicity and Diseases: Diseases of the Res...
Electron micrograph of Mycobacterium tuberculosis.
This bacteria is primarily responsible for TB.
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Pathogenicity and Diseases: Diseases of the Res...
Respiratory Acidosis and Alkalosis
A Davenport diagram illustrating the transition from respiratory acidosis to respiratory alkalosis.
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Pathogenicity and Diseases: Diseases of the Res...
Symptoms of pneumonia
Typical symptoms associated with pneumonia.
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Pathogenicity and Diseases: Diseases of the Res...
Sporotrichosis
Cytologic preparation from a case of feline sporotrichosis; phagocytic cells show numerous variably-shaped yeast forms within.
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Pathogenicity and Diseases: Diseases of the Res...
Bacterial pneumonia
A chest X-ray showing a very prominent wedge-shaped bacterial pneumonia in the right lung.
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Pathogenicity and Diseases: Diseases of the Res...
Bordetella pertussis
Bordetella pertussis, the bacteria that causes whooping cough
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Pathogenicity and Diseases: Diseases of the Res...
Airborne transmission
Infection of the respiratory system via airborne transmission.
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Pathogenicity and Diseases: Diseases of the Res...
Trimeric Autotransporter Adhesin structure
The structure on the top (outside) of the outer membrane is a TAA protein. Various parts of the TAA are labelled, including the N-terminal head, stalk
domain and C-terminal membrane anchor.
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Pathogenicity and Diseases: Diseases of the Res...
Streptococcus pneumoniae
The bacterium Streptococcus pneumoniae, a common cause of pneumonia, imaged by an electron microscope
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Pathogenicity and Diseases: Diseases of the Res...
Streptococcal pharyngitis
A severe case of strep throat or Streptococcal pharyngitis.
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Pathogenicity and Diseases: Diseases of the Res...
Graph of y=x^2
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Pathogenicity and Diseases: Diseases of the Res...
Acute Otitis Media
This is a view of the tympanic membrane showing inflammation and redness, typical of acute otitis media.
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Pathogenicity and Diseases: Diseases of the Res...
Bronchial anatomy
The pulmonary alveoli are the terminal ends of the respiratory tree, outcropping from either alveolar sacs or alveolar ducts, which are both sites of gas
exchange with the blood as well
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Pathogenicity and Diseases: Diseases of the Res...
Coronaviruses
Coronaviruses are a group of viruses that have a halo, or crown-like (corona) appearance when viewed under an electron microscope. If you have a cold
10-15% of the time it is caused by a virus like this.
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Pathogenicity and Diseases: Diseases of the Res...
Choose the answer that provides the best overview of the
functional anatomy of the respiratory system.
A) diaphragm contracts-air inhaled, lungs-gas exchange occurs, bronchilungs passively recoil-exhale
B) diaphragm relaxes-air inhaled, lungs-gas exchange occurs, alveolidiaphragm contracts- lungs exhale
C) diaphragm relaxes-air inhaled, lungs-gas exchange occurs, bronchidiaphragm contracts- lungs exhale
D) diaphragm contracts-air inhaled, lungs-gas exchange occurs, alveolilungs passively recoil-exhale
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Pathogenicity and Diseases: Diseases of the Res...
Choose the answer that provides the best overview of the
functional anatomy of the respiratory system.
A) diaphragm contracts-air inhaled, lungs-gas exchange occurs, bronchilungs passively recoil-exhale
B) diaphragm relaxes-air inhaled, lungs-gas exchange occurs, alveolidiaphragm contracts- lungs exhale
C) diaphragm relaxes-air inhaled, lungs-gas exchange occurs, bronchidiaphragm contracts- lungs exhale
D) diaphragm contracts-air inhaled, lungs-gas exchange occurs, alveolilungs passively recoil-exhale
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Pathogenicity and Diseases: Diseases of the Res...
Which of the following is part of the inner ear to help maintain an
animal's balance?
A) all of these
B) auditory transponder
C) cochlear nerve
D) the utricle
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Pathogenicity and Diseases: Diseases of the Res...
Which of the following is part of the inner ear to help maintain an
animal's balance?
A) all of these
B) auditory transponder
C) cochlear nerve
D) the utricle
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Pathogenicity and Diseases: Diseases of the Res...
Which of the vestibular organs are most responsive to
gravitational changes?
A) semicircle canals
B) utricle and saccule
C) only the utricle
D) utricle, saccule, and the semicircle canals
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Pathogenicity and Diseases: Diseases of the Res...
Which of the vestibular organs are most responsive to
gravitational changes?
A) semicircle canals
B) utricle and saccule
C) only the utricle
D) utricle, saccule, and the semicircle canals
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Pathogenicity and Diseases: Diseases of the Res...
Which of the following can be considered an advantage to the
bacterium that causes tuberculosis, Mycobacterium tuberculosis?
A) It can cause inflammation in the respiratory system
B) It can survive for long periods of time, suspended in air as particles or
droplets
C) It can be transmitted from person-person contact such as shaking
hands or sharing food and drink
D) It can be transmitted via the fecal-oral route which is why it is common
in developing countries
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Pathogenicity and Diseases: Diseases of the Res...
Which of the following can be considered an advantage to the
bacterium that causes tuberculosis, Mycobacterium tuberculosis?
A) It can cause inflammation in the respiratory system
B) It can survive for long periods of time, suspended in air as particles or
droplets
C) It can be transmitted from person-person contact such as shaking
hands or sharing food and drink
D) It can be transmitted via the fecal-oral route which is why it is common
in developing countries
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Pathogenicity and Diseases: Diseases of the Res...
Gram-negative bacteria can cause otitis media, a common cause
of earache. Specifically, gram-negative bacteria infect the host
cells:
A) via the virulence factor, UspA1, which adheres to the cell
B) via the virulence factor, trimeric autotransporter adhesins (TAA), which
evades the immune system
C) via the virulence factor, trimeric autotransporter adhesins (TAA), which
adheres to the cell
D) via the virulence factor, UspA1, which evades the immune system
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Pathogenicity and Diseases: Diseases of the Res...
Gram-negative bacteria can cause otitis media, a common cause
of earache. Specifically, gram-negative bacteria infect the host
cells:
A) via the virulence factor, UspA1, which adheres to the cell
B) via the virulence factor, trimeric autotransporter adhesins (TAA), which
evades the immune system
C) via the virulence factor, trimeric autotransporter adhesins (TAA), which
adheres to the cell
D) via the virulence factor, UspA1, which evades the immune system
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Pathogenicity and Diseases: Diseases of the Res...
Which of the following does NOT correctly describe an aspect of
sinusitis?
A) sinusitis is always cured by antibiotics
B) sinusitis may be acute or chronic
C) sinusitis is an inflammation of the maxillary, frontal, ethmoid, or
sphenoid cavities
D) sinusitis is common, but can be dangerous
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Pathogenicity and Diseases: Diseases of the Res...
Which of the following does NOT correctly describe an aspect of
sinusitis?
A) sinusitis is always cured by antibiotics
B) sinusitis may be acute or chronic
C) sinusitis is an inflammation of the maxillary, frontal, ethmoid, or
sphenoid cavities
D) sinusitis is common, but can be dangerous
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Pathogenicity and Diseases: Diseases of the Res...
The common cold is best described as:
A) a viral infectious disease of the lower respiratory tract that primarily
affects the alveoli
B) a viral infectious disease of the upper respiratory tract that primarily
affects the nose
C) a viral infectious disease that produces an immune response that
damages the nasal epithelium
D) a viral infectious disease that can be treated with a wide range of
antibiotics
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Pathogenicity and Diseases: Diseases of the Res...
The common cold is best described as:
A) a viral infectious disease of the lower respiratory tract that primarily
affects the alveoli
B) a viral infectious disease of the upper respiratory tract that primarily
affects the nose
C) a viral infectious disease that produces an immune response that
damages the nasal epithelium
D) a viral infectious disease that can be treated with a wide range of
antibiotics
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Pathogenicity and Diseases: Diseases of the Res...
The most commonly implicated virus in the common cold is the
rhinovirus. Which of the following best describes this rhinovirus?
A) It is a non-enveloped RNA virus
B) It is an enveloped RNA virus
C) It is a non-enveloped DNA virus
D) It is an enveloped DNA virus
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Pathogenicity and Diseases: Diseases of the Res...
The most commonly implicated virus in the common cold is the
rhinovirus. Which of the following best describes this rhinovirus?
A) It is a non-enveloped RNA virus
B) It is an enveloped RNA virus
C) It is a non-enveloped DNA virus
D) It is an enveloped DNA virus
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Pathogenicity and Diseases: Diseases of the Res...
A common symptom associated with pertussis is the condition
lymphocytosis. Lymphocytosis is a result of:
A) PTx production which promotes lymphocyte and phagocyte function
B) PTx production which stimulates cAMP to ATP production
C) PTx production which prevents entry of lymphocytes into lymph nodes
D) PTx production which damages the cilia and promotes lymphocyte
movement
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Pathogenicity and Diseases: Diseases of the Res...
A common symptom associated with pertussis is the condition
lymphocytosis. Lymphocytosis is a result of:
A) PTx production which promotes lymphocyte and phagocyte function
B) PTx production which stimulates cAMP to ATP production
C) PTx production which prevents entry of lymphocytes into lymph nodes
D) PTx production which damages the cilia and promotes lymphocyte
movement
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Pathogenicity and Diseases: Diseases of the Res...
Which of the following best describes the mechanism Bordetella
pertussis uses to infect a human host?
A) The bacterium contains a surface sulfatide protein that binds to the
cilia of epithelial cells
B) The bacterium contains a surface adhesin protein that binds to the
cilia of epithelial cells
C) The bacterium produces a tracheal cytotoxin that promotes cilia
movement to increase clearance
D) The bacterium inhibits innate immune production of a tracheal
cytotoxin to prevent its clearance
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Pathogenicity and Diseases: Diseases of the Res...
Which of the following best describes the mechanism Bordetella
pertussis uses to infect a human host?
A) The bacterium contains a surface sulfatide protein that binds to the
cilia of epithelial cells
B) The bacterium contains a surface adhesin protein that binds to the
cilia of epithelial cells
C) The bacterium produces a tracheal cytotoxin that promotes cilia
movement to increase clearance
D) The bacterium inhibits innate immune production of a tracheal
cytotoxin to prevent its clearance
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Pathogenicity and Diseases: Diseases of the Res...
Corynebacterium diphtheriae is responsible for the upper
respiratory tract infection, diphtheria. Whch mechanism of action
is responsible for the production of toxins that can result in death?
A) C. diphtheriae produces diphtheria toxin and integrates it into the host
DNA
B) C. diphtheriae, upon infection, releases Fragment B of the toxin and it
binds to the host cell
C) C. diphtheriae is infected by a bacteriophage that integrates toxinencoding genes in the bacterium
D) C. diphtheriae, upon infection, releases Fragment A of the toxin and
inhibits protein synthesis
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Pathogenicity and Diseases: Diseases of the Res...
Corynebacterium diphtheriae is responsible for the upper
respiratory tract infection, diphtheria. Whch mechanism of action
is responsible for the production of toxins that can result in death?
A) C. diphtheriae produces diphtheria toxin and integrates it into the host
DNA
B) C. diphtheriae, upon infection, releases Fragment B of the toxin and it
binds to the host cell
C) C. diphtheriae is infected by a bacteriophage that integrates toxinencoding genes in the bacterium
D) C. diphtheriae, upon infection, releases Fragment A of the toxin and
inhibits protein synthesis
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Pathogenicity and Diseases: Diseases of the Res...
The bacterium Streptococcus pyogenes is commonly associated
with scarlet fever. Which factor is most important in the infection
process?
A) The production of exotoxins by S. pyogenes after integration of
bacterium DNA in the host
B) The production of exotoxins by the T12 bacteriophage after integration
in the serine tRNA gene
C) The production of exotoxins by S. pyogenes caused by infection by
the T12 bacteriophage
D) The production of exotoxins by the T12 bacteriophage after integration
of DNA in the host
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Pathogenicity and Diseases: Diseases of the Res...
The bacterium Streptococcus pyogenes is commonly associated
with scarlet fever. Which factor is most important in the infection
process?
A) The production of exotoxins by S. pyogenes after integration of
bacterium DNA in the host
B) The production of exotoxins by the T12 bacteriophage after integration
in the serine tRNA gene
C) The production of exotoxins by S. pyogenes caused by infection by
the T12 bacteriophage
D) The production of exotoxins by the T12 bacteriophage after integration
of DNA in the host
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Pathogenicity and Diseases: Diseases of the Res...
The major types of bacteria that cause pneumonia can be
classified as:
A) gram-positive, gram-negative and atypical
B) gram-positive
C) gram-negative
D) atypical
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Pathogenicity and Diseases: Diseases of the Res...
The major types of bacteria that cause pneumonia can be
classified as:
A) gram-positive, gram-negative and atypical
B) gram-positive
C) gram-negative
D) atypical
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Pathogenicity and Diseases: Diseases of the Res...
What is the most important risk factor globally for tuberculosis
(TB), an infectious, potentially lethal disease affecting the lungs?
A) malnutrition and poverty
B) chronic cough
C) cigarette use
D) prior infection with HIV
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Pathogenicity and Diseases: Diseases of the Res...
What is the most important risk factor globally for tuberculosis
(TB), an infectious, potentially lethal disease affecting the lungs?
A) malnutrition and poverty
B) chronic cough
C) cigarette use
D) prior infection with HIV
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Pathogenicity and Diseases: Diseases of the Res...
Common symptoms of strep throat include: fever, sore throat and
enlarged lymph nodes. The most common bacterial cause of
pharyngitis is:
A) Corynebacterium diphtheriae
B) Group A beta-hemolytic streptococcus
C) Chlamydophila pneumoniae
D) Mycoplasma pneumoniae
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Pathogenicity and Diseases: Diseases of the Res...
Common symptoms of strep throat include: fever, sore throat and
enlarged lymph nodes. The most common bacterial cause of
pharyngitis is:
A) Corynebacterium diphtheriae
B) Group A beta-hemolytic streptococcus
C) Chlamydophila pneumoniae
D) Mycoplasma pneumoniae
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Pathogenicity and Diseases: Diseases of the Res...
Choose the answer that best describes coryza, a respiratory
system disorder.
A) viral infection causing chills, fever, aches, fatigue
B) caused by RNA virus with rapidly-evolving protein 'coat' requiring new
vaccinations each year
C) caused by family of viruses that affect both birds and mammals
D) inflammation of mucous membranes of nasal cavity that may be viral
or allergenic in nature
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Pathogenicity and Diseases: Diseases of the Res...
Choose the answer that best describes coryza, a respiratory
system disorder.
A) viral infection causing chills, fever, aches, fatigue
B) caused by RNA virus with rapidly-evolving protein 'coat' requiring new
vaccinations each year
C) caused by family of viruses that affect both birds and mammals
D) inflammation of mucous membranes of nasal cavity that may be viral
or allergenic in nature
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Pathogenicity and Diseases: Diseases of the Res...
Pneumonia can be caused by either viral or bacterial infections.
Which of the following statements is NOT correct in regards to the
viral route of infection?
A) The virus infects the alveoli, replicates and releases viruses which
cause fluid to fill the alveoli
B) The virus enters the respiratory system by entering the mouth and
nose via droplets
C) The virus, upon invasion of the airway and alveoli, will directly kill the
cells or cause apoptosis
D) The immune system response damages the lungs by activating
agents that fill the alveoli with fluid
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Pathogenicity and Diseases: Diseases of the Res...
Pneumonia can be caused by either viral or bacterial infections.
Which of the following statements is NOT correct in regards to the
viral route of infection?
A) The virus infects the alveoli, replicates and releases viruses which
cause fluid to fill the alveoli
B) The virus enters the respiratory system by entering the mouth and
nose via droplets
C) The virus, upon invasion of the airway and alveoli, will directly kill the
cells or cause apoptosis
D) The immune system response damages the lungs by activating
agents that fill the alveoli with fluid
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Pathogenicity and Diseases: Diseases of the Res...
Which of the following characteristic can be associated with the
human respiratory syncytial virus (RSV)?
A) RSV is a negative-sense, single stranded RNA virus
B) RSV is a negative-sense, single stranded DNA virus
C) RSV is a negative-sense, double stranded RNA virus
D) RSV is a negative-sense, double stranded DNA virus
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Pathogenicity and Diseases: Diseases of the Res...
Which of the following characteristic can be associated with the
human respiratory syncytial virus (RSV)?
A) RSV is a negative-sense, single stranded RNA virus
B) RSV is a negative-sense, single stranded DNA virus
C) RSV is a negative-sense, double stranded RNA virus
D) RSV is a negative-sense, double stranded DNA virus
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Pathogenicity and Diseases: Diseases of the Res...
Which of the following is a unique characteristic of the human
respiratory syncytial virus (RSV)?
A) The expression of M proteins required for viral fusion protein synthesis
that enter the host cell
B) The expression of SH proteins that are needed to form syncytia
C) The expression of F proteins on its surface that results in the merging
of nearby cell membranes
D) The expression of G proteins responsible for transferring genomic
RNA to the host
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Pathogenicity and Diseases: Diseases of the Res...
Which of the following is a unique characteristic of the human
respiratory syncytial virus (RSV)?
A) The expression of M proteins required for viral fusion protein synthesis
that enter the host cell
B) The expression of SH proteins that are needed to form syncytia
C) The expression of F proteins on its surface that results in the merging
of nearby cell membranes
D) The expression of G proteins responsible for transferring genomic
RNA to the host
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Pathogenicity and Diseases: Diseases of the Res...
A bat researcher is analyzing samples of droppings and 2 weeks
after gathering samples, he begins to exhibit non-specific
respiratory symptoms but has a normal x-ray. Based on his
history, which diagnostic test would be most appropriate?
A) A urinalysis testing for antigens specific to Toxoplasma gondii
B) A skin test for Histoplasma capsulatum
C) A skin test for Toxoplasma gondii
D) A urinalysis testing for antigens specific to Histoplasma capsulatum
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Pathogenicity and Diseases: Diseases of the Res...
A bat researcher is analyzing samples of droppings and 2 weeks
after gathering samples, he begins to exhibit non-specific
respiratory symptoms but has a normal x-ray. Based on his
history, which diagnostic test would be most appropriate?
A) A urinalysis testing for antigens specific to Toxoplasma gondii
B) A skin test for Histoplasma capsulatum
C) A skin test for Toxoplasma gondii
D) A urinalysis testing for antigens specific to Histoplasma capsulatum
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Pathogenicity and Diseases: Diseases of the Res...
A fungus exists as a mold at 25°C and a yeast at 37°C. Which of
the following best describes this fungus? Choose one answer.
A) Encapsulated
B) Dimorphic
C) Dermatophyte
D) Contagious
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Pathogenicity and Diseases: Diseases of the Res...
A fungus exists as a mold at 25°C and a yeast at 37°C. Which of
the following best describes this fungus? Choose one answer.
A) Encapsulated
B) Dimorphic
C) Dermatophyte
D) Contagious
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Pathogenicity and Diseases: Diseases of the Res...
Which of the following best describes characteristics associated
with Coccidiomycosis immitus?
A) C. immitus grows as a mycelium in soil and produces a spherule form
in the host
B) C. immitus grows as an arthroconidia in the soil during dry spells then
goes dormant during rain
C) C. immitus grow as an arthroconidia in the soil and produces long
filaments in the host
D) C. immitus are active during dry spells forming mycelium then go
dormant as spores during rain
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Pathogenicity and Diseases: Diseases of the Res...
Which of the following best describes characteristics associated
with Coccidiomycosis immitus?
A) C. immitus grows as a mycelium in soil and produces a spherule form
in the host
B) C. immitus grows as an arthroconidia in the soil during dry spells then
goes dormant during rain
C) C. immitus grow as an arthroconidia in the soil and produces long
filaments in the host
D) C. immitus are active during dry spells forming mycelium then go
dormant as spores during rain
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Pathogenicity and Diseases: Diseases of the Res...
Which diagnostic test could be used to test for the presence of
Coccidiomycosis immitus in a human host?
A) Microscopic analysis for specific morphological features in body fluids
B) Xenodiagnosis using rabbits
C) Biochemical analysis for fermentation products
D) There is currently no diagnostic test but soil analysis can be
performed to confirm presence
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Pathogenicity and Diseases: Diseases of the Res...
Which diagnostic test could be used to test for the presence of
Coccidiomycosis immitus in a human host?
A) Microscopic analysis for specific morphological features in body fluids
B) Xenodiagnosis using rabbits
C) Biochemical analysis for fermentation products
D) There is currently no diagnostic test but soil analysis can be
performed to confirm presence
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Pathogenicity and Diseases: Diseases of the Res...
A worker at a rose thorn cutting facility begins to develop difficulty
breathing and develops lesions on the skin by his fingers. The
worker goes untreated and the lesions develop into boils. Which
form of sporotrichosis does this represent?
A) Both cutaneous and pulmonary sporotrichosis
B) Cutaneous sporotrichosis
C) Pulmonary sporotrichosis
D) Disseminated sporotrichosis
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Pathogenicity and Diseases: Diseases of the Res...
A worker at a rose thorn cutting facility begins to develop difficulty
breathing and develops lesions on the skin by his fingers. The
worker goes untreated and the lesions develop into boils. Which
form of sporotrichosis does this represent?
A) Both cutaneous and pulmonary sporotrichosis
B) Cutaneous sporotrichosis
C) Pulmonary sporotrichosis
D) Disseminated sporotrichosis
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Pathogenicity and Diseases: Diseases of the Res...
A worker in a soil analysis lab begins to suffer from flu-like
symptoms, skin lesions, bone pain and a chronic cough. The
doctors diagnosis her with blastomycosis. Which of the following
criteria was met to reach this diagnosis?
A) The fact that the worker is exposed to soil on a daily basis
B) The presence of budding organisms in sputum
C) The presence of budding organisms in her urine
D) The flu-like symptoms and her work as a soil analyzer
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Pathogenicity and Diseases: Diseases of the Res...
A worker in a soil analysis lab begins to suffer from flu-like
symptoms, skin lesions, bone pain and a chronic cough. The
doctors diagnosis her with blastomycosis. Which of the following
criteria was met to reach this diagnosis?
A) The fact that the worker is exposed to soil on a daily basis
B) The presence of budding organisms in sputum
C) The presence of budding organisms in her urine
D) The flu-like symptoms and her work as a soil analyzer
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Pathogenicity and Diseases: Diseases of the Res...
Attribution
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• Wiktionary. "scarlet fever." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/scarlet+fever
• Wiktionary. "enterotoxin." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/enterotoxin
• Wiktionary. "Shine-Dalgarno sequence." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Shine-Dalgarno+sequence
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• Wikipedia. "Common cold." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Common_cold
• Wiktionary. "capsid." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/capsid
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• Wikimedia. "Coronaviruses 004 lores." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Coronaviruses_004_lores.jpg
• Wikipedia. "Sporotrichosis." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sporotrichosis
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Pathogenicity and Diseases: Diseases of the Res...
• Wiktionary. "fungus." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/fungus
• Wiktionary. "Sporotrichosis." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Sporotrichosis
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• Boundless Learning. "Boundless." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://www.boundless.com//physics/definition/alveoli--2
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• Wiktionary. "tympanic." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/tympanic
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• Wikipedia. "Otitis media." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Otitis_media
• Wikipedia. "Otitis media." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Otitis_media
• Wikipedia. "Otitis media." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Otitis_media
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Pathogenicity and Diseases: Diseases of the Res...
• Wikipedia. "Whooping cough." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Whooping_cough
• Wikipedia. "Whooping cough." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Whooping_cough
• Wiktionary. "zoonotic." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/zoonotic
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• Wiktionary. "glottis." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/glottis
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• Wiktionary. "translation." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/translation
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• Wikipedia. "Tuberculosis." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuberculosis
• Wiktionary. "pleurisy." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/pleurisy
• Wiktionary. "sputum." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/sputum
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Pathogenicity and Diseases: Diseases of the Res...
• Wiktionary. "latent." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/latent
• Wiktionary. "tuberculosis." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/tuberculosis
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• Wikipedia. "Bacterial pneumonia." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bacterial_pneumonia
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• Wikipedia. "Pneumonia." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pneumonia
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• Boundless Learning. "Boundless." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://www.boundless.com//physics/definition/alveoli--2
• Wikipedia. "Streptococcal pharyngitis." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Streptococcal_pharyngitis
• Wikipedia. "Pharyngitis." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pharyngitis
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• Wiktionary. "hemolytic." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/hemolytic
• Wikipedia. "peritonsillar abscess." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/peritonsillar%20abscess
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• United States Department of Labor. "Safety and Health Topics | Healthcare - Infectious Diseases." Public domain
http://www.osha.gov/SLTC/healthcarefacilities/infectious_diseases.html
• Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. "CDC - Airborne Transmission - Hantavirus." Public domain
http://www.cdc.gov/hantavirus/technical/hanta/airborne-transmission.html
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Pathogenicity and Diseases: Diseases of the Res...
• Wikipedia. "Transmission (medicine)." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transmission_(medicine)#Droplet_Contact
• Wikipedia. "droplet nuclei." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/droplet%20nuclei
• Wikipedia. "Blastomycosis." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blastomycosis
• Wiktionary. "inhalation." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/inhalation
• Wiktionary. "fungal." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/fungal
• Boundless Learning. "Boundless." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://www.boundless.com//microbiology/definition/blastomycosis
• Wikipedia. "Syncytia." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syncytia#Viral_infection
• Wikipedia. "Human respiratory syncytial virus." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_respiratory_syncytial_virus
• Wiktionary. "hypertonic." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/hypertonic
• Wiktionary. "prophylactic." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/prophylactic
• Wiktionary. "cannula." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/cannula
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• Wikipedia. "Human respiratory syncytial virus." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_respiratory_syncytial_virus
• Wikipedia. "Histoplasmosis." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Histoplasmosis
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• Wiktionary. "fungal." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/fungal
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Pathogenicity and Diseases: Diseases of the Res...
• Boundless Learning. "Boundless." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://www.boundless.com//microbiology/definition/coccidioidomycosis
• Wikipedia. "apneustic center." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/apneustic%20center
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• Boundless Learning. "Boundless." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://www.boundless.com//biology/definition/vestibular-system
• Wiktionary. "vestibulocochlear." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/vestibulocochlear
• Wiktionary. "stereocilium." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/stereocilium
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