Transcript Comprehensive Review

ANATOMY LECTURE
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Comprehensive Review
CELL MEMBRANE
 The
plasma (cell) membrane is made up of two
layers of molecules = PHOSPHOLIPIDS.
 Phospholipids are amphipathic molecules.
 That means they have a polar region and a
non-polar region.
 The polar region consists of PHOSPHATE
HEADS and this region is considered to be
HYDROPHILIC (likes water).
 The non-polar region of the cell membrane
consists of FATTY ACID TAILS and this
region is considered to be HYPDROPHOBIC
(repels water).
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CELL MEMBRANE
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The cell membrane is semi-permeable to allow
only certain things into and out of the cell.
Functions of the Plasma Membrane:
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Movement of materials into and out of cell
Acts as a barrier to the external environment
Acts as a site for receiving signals from the rest of the
body
Acts as a site for holding the cell in place
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GOLGI COMPLEX
The Golgi complex is like a Fed-Ex center that
packages and ships the proteins from the
ribosomes.
 The proteins from the ribosomes enter the Golgi
channels from the RER.
 While in the Golgi complex, the proteins are
modified and prepared for transport out of
the cell.
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MITOCHONDRIA
 Mitochondria
are considered the smallest
living units in the body because they can
make their own energy (ATP). Cells have
hundreds of mitochondria.
 Function of mitochondria is to make
most of the cell’s ATP, which is cellular
energy (ATP is an energy source).
 Some ATP is made in the cytosol, but most
is made in the mitochondria.
 NOTE: Mitochondria must have OXYGEN
to convert nutrients to ATP for energy.
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AMINO ACIDS
 AMINO
ACIDS are MONOMERS
(building blocks) of protein. They are
tiny carbon molecules, made of just a
carbon atom and a few other atoms. There
are only about 12 types of amino acids.
They are like beads on a necklace. How
they are arranged on the string
determines the type of necklace. Each
bead is an amino acid, and the whole
necklace is the protein. A bunch of the
same types of necklaces (proteins) woven
together makes up our tissues.
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NUCLEUS

When GENE TRANSCRIPTION occurs, it is
characterized by mRNA SYNTHESIS (messenger
RNA is synthesized).
This occurs in the nucleus.
 The mRNA then exits the nucleus and goes to the
cytoplasm.


When TRANSLATION occurs, it is characterized by
PROTEIN SYNTHESIS.

This occurs in the cytoplasm.
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REVIEW OF GENETICS
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The nucleus of the typical (diploid) cells of the body have 46
chromosomes . Each gamete (ovum or sperm) has 23
chromosomes.
A chromosome is a double-stranded string of DNA.
DNA is made of a string of molecules called nucleic acids.
There are only 4 different nucleic acids: Adenine (A), Thymine
(T), Guanine (G), and Cytosine (C).
Each A, T, G, or C on one strand of DNA is paired to its
counterpart on the other strand of DNA.
Adenine (A) only pairs with Thymine (T), and Guanine (G)
only pairs with Cytosine (C).
When they pair up, they are called base pairs. The double
strand of DNA looks like a ladder. It is then twisted into a
shape called a helix.
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Therefore, DNA is a double-stranded helix.
TISSUES AND ORGANS
TISSUE: A group of cells, usually similar, which
share a particular function.
 Each ORGAN is made up of one or more tissues.
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INTEGUMENT SYSTEM
ARRECTOR PILLI: tiny muscles that make the
hairs stand up during “goosebumps”.
 HAIR PAPILLAE: what is destroyed by electrolysis,
so hair won’t grow back.
 The HAIR MATRIX is the leading edge of the
papillae. It is actually skin cells (keratocytes) which
are rapidly dividing. When they die, the new ones
push them out, forming the hair. Hair is just dead
skin cells. The HAIR ROOT is just the base of the
hair.
 The hair matrix is the part of the follicle that is
the site of hair growth and the location of the
melanocytes that determine hair color.
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 Hair that goes grey has lost its melanin pigment.
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LAYERS OF THE EPIDERMIS
Stratum corneum (most superficial layer of
epidermis)
 Stratum lucidum (only in thick skin)
 Stratum granulosum (cells start to die here)
 Stratum spinosum
 Stratum basale (the deepest layer of epidermis;
cells are reproducing only here)
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SKIN CANCER
This is the most common cancer in the USA, and its major
risk factor is exposure to ultraviolet light.
1) BASAL CELL CARCINOMA: Cancer of the blood vessels.
Almost never metastasizes or crosses the basement
membrane
Looks like shiny nodules
2) SQUAMOUS CELL CARCINOMA
25% of all cancers
Will metastasize if not treated.
3) MELANOMA: cancer of the melanocytes of the epidermis
Highly metastatic.
Asymmetrical, sharp but irregular borders and edges
Not uniform in color.
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BURNS
FIRST DEGREE: Minor burn to the epidermis;
sunburn
 SECOND DEGREE: Dermis separates from
epidermis; blister
 THIRD DEGREE: Hypodermis is burned. (most
severe type of burn)
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KELOID: Thick, red, painful scars
 HEMANGIOMA: enlargement of the lining of
blood vessels, and is treated with lasers
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Piebaldism: a rare autosomal dominant disorder
of melanocyte development, causing a congenital
white patch of hair.
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GROSS ANATOMY OF BONES
TWO TYPES OF BONE TISSUE
 Compact bone – dense outer layer of bone
Found in the diaphysis (shaft) of long bones
Spongy (cancellous) bone – internal network of bone
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 Found
in the epiphysis (ends) of bones
Osteomalacia: Rickets caused by lack of Vitamin D
 Achondroplasia: type of dwarfism
 Chondromalacia: cartilage rubbing off, usually
under the patella of active people.
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CLASSIFICATION OF FRACTURES
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COMPOUND (OPEN)
 Bone has broken through the skin
 Increased chance of infections, which can be lifethreatening.
 Requires surgery, hospitalization and IV
antibiotics
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SIMPLE (CLOSED)
 Skin is not broken
 May just require a cast
CLASSIFICATION OF FRACTURES
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INCOMPLETE
 Only one side of the bone is broken
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COMPLETE
 Both sides of bone is broken
 DISPLACED: The bone fragments don’t
line up
 Produces new and abnormal bone
arrangements
 Non-DISPLACED: The bone fragments
stay lined up
TYPES OF FRACTURES
 COMMINUTED:
The most serious of the
closed fractures; bone shatters into many
small pieces. Bone graft might be needed.
 SPIRAL: Bone was twisted.
 GREENSTICK: most common in children
 COMPRESSION: bone is crushed, like
the vertebrae in osteoporosis.
 STRESS: least serious, get tiny, almost
invisible breaks.
 PATHOLOGICAL FRACTURE: When
the bone (especially the hip bone of
someone with osteoporosis) breaks first,
then the patient falls.
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CLASSIFICATION OF JOINTS: TWO
WAYS
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1. What type of movement does the joint allow?
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2. What tissue joins the bones?
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Fibrous Joints
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Fibrous connective tissue (dense regular CT)
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suture, tooth, ligament
Cartilaginous Joints
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Fibrocartilage (vertebral discs, pubic symphysis)
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Hyaline cartilage, no capsule (epiphyseal plate, costal cart)
Synovial: Hyaline cartilage with a capsule
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No movement, limited movement, free movement
TYPES OF MOVEMENT
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Synarthrotic
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Amphiarthrotic
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immoveable, allows no movement
allows only limited movement
Diarthrotic
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freely moveable
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Cartilaginous Joints
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A cartilaginous joint is two bones joined by cartilage. The cartilage is either
fibrocartilage or hyaline cartilage.
Fibrocartilage joints (symphyses) are amphiarthrotic (slightly moveable).
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Examples are intervertebral discs and the pubic symphysis
Hyaline cartilage joints (synchondroses) are synarthrotic (immovable).
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Examples are epiphyseal plates and costal cartilages
Therefore, one type of cartilaginous joint is slightly moveable (fibrocartilage)
and one type of cartilaginous joint is immovable (hyaline)
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LIGAMENTS
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The joint capsule alone is not strong enough, so
there are reinforcing LIGAMENTS, which provide
most of the strength of holding the bones to
bones. They are dense regular connective tissue.
In the knee joint, the collateral ligaments are
the main ligaments that keep the knee from
moving medially to laterally.
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LIGAMENTS
Ligaments take a long time to heal if torn because they
do not have blood vessels of their own, like bones do.
They already have enough fibroblasts and collagen,
though, so they eventually can heal. It is better to
break a bone than tear a ligament because bones have
a better blood supply and heal faster.
 SPRAINS: are tears in a ligament, and are fairly
serious. When a ligament is sprained, it can take 6
months to heal, and may even need surgery. Even with
a partial tear, you have to be careful.
 STRAIN: is a tear in a muscle, and is not as bad
because it has good circulation and heals faster. If you
can walk on it and it heals in a couple of days, it’s a 23
strain.
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SKELETAL MUSCLE
For skeletal muscle to contract, a neuron must first
release a chemical called acetylcholine onto the
region known as the endplate.
 Calcium is also needed for muscle contraction.
 The nerve signal is called an ACTION POTENTIAL.
 It causes a release of calcium from the muscle fiber,
which causes contraction.
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Don’t confuse these terms!
MUSCLE FASCICLE: a group of muscle fibers,
surrounded by perimysium.
MUSCLE FIBER: a single muscle cell
MYOFIBRIL: a long organelle inside a muscle fiber,
contains actin and myosin myofilaments.
MYOFILAMENTS: these are proteins, and there are two
types: actin (with troponin and tropomyosin) and myosin.
The myofilament is the lowest level of organization that is
composed of actin, myosin, troponin, and tropomyosin
proteins.
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Therefore, a myofilament is part of a myofibril, which is
inside a muscle fiber, which is inside a muscle fascicle.
MECHANISM OF
CONTRACTION
The Sliding Filament Theory
 Contraction results as the myosin heads of the thick
filaments attach like hooks to the thin actin filaments at
both ends of the sarcomere and pull the thin filaments
toward the center of the sarcomere.
 The myosin head is like a hook with a hinge. After a
myosin head pivots at its hinge, it draws the actin closer,
then lets go, springs up again to grab the actin filament
again, pulls it closer, and it keeps repeating this until
the entire actin filament has been drawn in as far as it
can go.
 The sites where the myosin heads hook onto the actin 26
are called cross-bridges.
MUSCLE CONTRACTION
TROPONIN is a complex of three proteins.
 TROPOMYOSIN is a single protein.
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Both troponin and tropomyosin cover the
ACTIN filament when the muscle is relaxed.
PHRENIC NERVE: controls contraction
rate of the diaphragm.
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ATP AND CREATINE PHOSPHATE
What do we do when we run out of ATP?
 Muscle fibers cannot stockpile ATP in preparation for
future periods of activity.
 However, they can store another high energy molecule
called creatine phosphate, which is the storage
form of ATP.
 Creatine phosphate is made from the excess ATP that
we accumulate when we are resting.
 During short periods of intense exercise, the small
reserves of ATP existing in a cell are used first.
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 Then creatinine phosphate is broken down to produce
ATP.
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MUSCLE DISEASE
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MUSCULAR DYSTROPHY
Genetic lack of the protein DISTROPHIN.
 The muscle cell won’t contract.
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BONE CELLS
Osteoblast (makes bone)
 Osteocyte (mature bone cell)
 Osteoclast (reabsorbs bone)
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Bone Infection = osteomyelitis
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OSTEON
 Osteon:
The functional unit of compact bone.
 osteocytes The mature bone cells which are
trapped in the matrix and help to maintain it
 lacunae The pockets or cavities in which the
osteocytes live and are trapped
 canaliculi The “tiny channels” for the legs of
each star-shaped osteocyte. Canuliculi allow
for diffusion of nutrients and wastes to the
other osteocytes.
 lamellae The circular and concentric layers
formed by the osteocyte matrix because they
sit next to each other in circles.
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ARTHRITIS
OSTEOARTHRITIS: common in older people.
The articular cartilage begins to break down, and
bone spurs start to grow.
 RHEUMATOID ARTHRITIS: It’s an
autoimmune disease where body attacks and
destroys the cartilage in synovial joints. It is
NOT known for having spurs, like osteoarthritis.
 GOUTY ARTHRITIS (gout). Caused by eating
too much red meat or protein. The breakdown
product is urea, and acid, which causes uric acid
crystals in the cooler areas of the body, especially
big toes.
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HEMATOCRIT
A quick screening test for anemia is the hematocrit.
 A drop of blood is drawn up a small glass capillary
tube and the tube is centrifuged to pack the red blood
cells at the bottom with the plasma on top.
 The hematocrit is the ratio of packed red blood
cells to total blood volume.
 Normal is 46% for men and 38% for women.
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BLOOD DISEASES
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Anemia is when the blood’s capacity for carrying
oxygen is diminished. It can be caused by blood loss,
deficiency in iron, B12, or folic acid, RBC destruction, or a
genetic defect of hemoglobin in the RBCs.
ANEMIA: Causes of anemia include lack of iron,
hemorrhage, lack of vitamin B12 (needed for RBC
division).
Leukemia is cancer of the stem cells, results in too few
NORMAL WBCs, although overall WBC count is high.
Thalassemia is a form of anemia. The RBCs have abnormal
hemoglobin.
Sickle cell disease is present in African Americans more
than in other groups, and is always characterized by
sickled erythrocytes.
Thrombocytopenia: too few platelets, and blood doesn’t
clot properly.
A thrombus is a blood clot in a vessel.
An embolis is a thrombus that travels in the blood
stream.
Immunotherapy: form of cancer treatment that takes blood
cells from a patient and fuses the blood with an antibody that
is specifically designed to seek out and destroy the cancer cell.
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The left ventricle is the largest chamber. It pushes the
blood out of the aorta to be distributed to the rest of
the body. Therefore, it is the chamber which has the
greatest pressure upon contraction.
SVC
RA
IVC
RV
Tricuspid valve
Pulmonary
artery
Pulmonary
vein
LA
LV
Pulmonary
semilunar valve
Bicuspid valve (Mitral)
Aorta
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HEART BEATS
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The heart does not need a nerve to stimulate it to contract, rather,
specialized heart cells can spontaneously start an action potential
that spreads to depolarize the rest of the cardiac muscle cells.
First the Sinoatrial (SA) node starts an action potential which
causes the atria to depolarize.
This depolarization will then reach the AV node at the bottom
portion of the right atrium and there is a delay here because these
cells are so small in diameter.
Another delay in the transmission of the depolarization at the
bundle of His (AV bundle) because these special heart cells
travel through the atrioventricular septum which is nonconductive fibrous connective tissue.
Next, the depolarizing event travels through the left and right
bundle branches, found in the interventricular septum, to
finally arrive at the Purkinje fibers in the ventricular
myocardium.
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HEART BEATS
The left and right ventricles contract at the same
time = SYSTOLE.
 When the ventricles are relaxed = DIASTOLE.
 At which stage do the atria contract? Diastole.
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HEART DISORDERS
PERICARDITIS: inflamed outer layer of heart.
 ENDOCARDITIS: Bacteria enter
bloodstream
 HEART MURMUR: The valve leaks
 PROLAPSED VALVE is more serious.
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Mitral valve is most likely to prolapse because it
pumps the hardest. Might need artificial valve.
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HEART DISORDERS
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ARRHYTHMIA = problem with the SA or AV node  improper
heart beat. Treatment is medicine or a pacemaker.
ANGINA = Not enough blood to the heart wall  severe pain 
(angina pectoris)
MYOCARDIAL INFARCTION = Complete blockage  not
enough O2 to that area = ISCHEMIA  that part of heart muscle
dies.
Angioplasty is a surgical procedure to clean out a clogged artery.
Aspirin reduces blood clot formation.
Nitroglycerine dilates the coronary arteries so more blood can get
in.
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HEART DISORDERS
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ATHEROSCLEROSIS is caused from eating fatty food
= build-up of fat inside artery  narrowing of artery.
VENTRICULAR FIBRILLATION: (the ventricles are
unable to pump blood efficiently due to rapid, random
contraction of cardiac muscle fibers). The muscle doesn’t
contract as a unit. Treatment is defibrillate with electric
shock
Congestive heart failure is progressive weakening of the
heart as it fails to keep up with the demands of pumping
blood.
CORONARY BYPASS: Take another blood vessel graft
(from thigh) and go around the blockage.
A ‘blue baby” has low oxygen levels in the blood that may
be due to failure of the foramen ovale to close at birth.
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BLOOD VESSELS
Saphanous vein is often used to bypass a
damaged coronary artery in coronary bypass
surgery. It is the most likely vein to become
varicose anyway.
 Facial vein: squeezing pimples, and nose
piercings in the “danger triangle” of the face
can spread infection through the facial vein into
the dural sinuses of the brain.
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DISORDERS OF LYMPH SYSTEM
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Hodgkins disease: Cancer of the lymph nodes; many
enlarged lymph nodes that do not feel tender
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Mononucleosis: Epstein Barr virus attacks B
lymphocytes and causes inflammation of lymph vessels.
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Lymphangitis: lymph vessel inflammation; usually from
infection.
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EDEMA is the accumulation of excess fluid in loose
connective tissue.
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BUBO is an infected lymph node that contains a large
number of pathogens that are trapped in the node but not
destroyed.
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RESPIRATORY DISORDERS
LARYNGITIS: inflamed vocal cords
(↓ sound production).
 Scar Tissue Nodules: Singers can this; may
require surgery.
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RESPIRATORY DISORDERS
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INFLUENZA This is the “flu” caused by a virus. This is
what you are vaccinated against when you get the flu
vaccine.
LUNG CANCER: the #2 most deadly form of cancer.
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85% of lung cancer is caused from smoking.
RESPIRATORY DISTRESS SYNDROME: premature
babies that don’t have enough surfactant.
PNEUMOTHORAX (COLLAPSED LUNG) from a hole
in the pleura (injury from broken rib, knife), it’s like
opening the stopper; air flows in through the hole, and the
lungs don’t inflate.
PLEURISY: Infection of the pleura; The rubbing
together of inflamed pleural membranes that produces a
stabbing pain in the chest with every breath; it feels like a
broken rib.
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INSPIRATION
The diaphragm and
the external
intercostals are the
muscle group that
produces inspiration.
 The diaphragm and
the internal
intercostals are the
muscle group that
produces expiration.
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RESPIRATORY DISORDERS
ASTHMA: In allergic conditions, bronchioles
will constrict, blocking air flow to the lungs.
 CHRONIC OBSTRUCTIVE PULMONARY
DISEASE (COPD)
 It is one of two conditions:
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CHRONIC BRONCHITIS: inflammation of the
bronchi, produces mucous, the openings become smaller
= obstructed.
EMPHYSEMA: loss of elastic tissue on the bronchioles
and alveoli, which collapse now during exhalation.
Alveoli lose their shape and their surface area. When
you see someone at the mall with an oxygen tank, they
probably have emphysema, and need pure oxygen.
Emphysema is characterized by a person with a
large, “barrel” chest.
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TOOTH DISORDERS
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CAVITY: Bacteria eat away at the enamel.
ROOT CANAL: If the cavity extends into the pulp cavity.
GINGIVITIS: Bacteria cause inflammation of the gingiva.
PERIODONTITIS: gingiva pulls away from the tooth and
extends down to the periodontal ligament. This is the
major cause of tooth loss.
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GI DISORDERS
GASTRIC ULCER: Bacterial infection can erode
the stomach lining.
 DIVERTICULITIS: a small pouch in the large
intestine becomes inflamed.
 COLITIS: inflammation of the colon.
 COLON CANCER: The #1 most deadly
cancer (kills more people) because it
metastasizes and there are no symptoms.
 COLONOSCOPY: Used to looks for POLYPS,
which are pre-cancerous growths Polyps might
cause blood in the stool.
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GI DISORDERS
 HEMORRHOIDS
are varicose veins
along the rectum.
 HEPATITIS: Infection of the liver =
(can be deadly)
 CIRRHOSIS: liver cells die; often
from alcoholism.
 JAUNDICE: This is not a disease; it is a
symptom of liver disorder. It first shows
up in the sclera of the eye because it is
white there.
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STOMACH CELLS
PARIETAL CELLS in the stomach secrete
hydrochloric acid and digestive enzymes which
kill bacteria in the stomach.
 They also secrete intrinsic factor, which is
needed to absorb vitamin B12. Lack of B12
causes pernicious (megaloblastic) anemia.
 CHIEF CELLS secrete an enzyme called
pepsinogen. When pepsinogen is exposed to
hydrochloric acid (HCl), it is cleaved into pepsin,
its active form. Pepsin digests proteins.
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Finished!
Congratulations!
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