Cardiovascular System: The Heart
Download
Report
Transcript Cardiovascular System: The Heart
Cardiovascular System: The Heart
Dr. Michael P. Gillespie
Cardiovascular System
Blood
Heart
Blood vessels
Heart
Propels the blood through the blood vessels
to reach all of cells of the body.
It circulates the blood through an estimated
100,000 km (60,000 miles) of blood vessels.
Heart
It beats 100,000 times every day (35 million
beats / year).
It pumps about 5 liters (5.3 qt) each minute
and 14,000 liters (3,600 gal) each day.
Cardiology – the study of the normal heart
and diseases associated with it.
Size And Shape
About the size of a closed fist.
Cone-shaped.
12cm (5 in.) Long, 9cm (3.5 in.) Wide, and
6cm (2.5 in.) Thick.
250g (8 oz) in adult females and 300g (10
oz) in adult males.
Location
Lies in the mediastinum (a mass of tissue
between the sternum and the vertebral
column).
2/3 of the mass is left of midline.
A cone lying on its side.
Anatomical Landmarks
The apex (pointed end) is directed anteriorly,
inferiorly, and to the left.
The base (broad portion) is directed
posteriorly, superiorly, and to the right.
Anterior surface – deep to sternum & ribs.
Anatomical Landmarks
Inferior surface – rests upon diaphragm.
Right border – faces the right lung.
Left border (pulmonary border) – faces the
left lung.
Cardiopulmonary Resuscitation
(CPR)
External pressure (compression) can be used to
force blood out of the heart and into the circulation.
CPR is utilized when the heart suddenly stops
beating.
Cardiac compressions with artificial ventilation of
the lungs keeps oxygenated blood circulating until
the heart can be restarted.
Self CPR (coughing).
Pericardium
Pericardium – membrane that surrounds and
protects the heart.
Fibrous pericardium – tough, inelastic, dense irregular
CT. Prevents overstretching of the heart.
Serous pericardium – thinner, more delicate layer.
Parietal layer.
Visceral layer (epicardium) – adheres to the heart.
Pericardial fluid lies in between these two layers in the
pericardial cavity.
Layers Of The Heart Wall
Epicardium (visceral layer of the serous
pericardium).
Myocardium – cardiac muscle tissue.
Endocardium – smooth lining of the
chambers of the heart and valves (continuous
with blood vessels).
Chambers Of The Heart
Atria – superior chambers.
Auricle – pouchlike structure.
Ventricles – inferior chambers.
Sulci – grooves on the surface of the heart
that contain blood vessels.
Chambers Of The Heart
Right atrium – receives blood from three
veins: superior vena cava, inferior vena
cava, and coronary sinus.
Tricuspid valve.
Pectinate muscles.
Interatrial septum.
Fossa ovalis – depression (remnant of foramen
ovale).
Chambers Of The Heart
Right ventricle – receives blood from right atrium.
Trabeculae carneae – bundles of cardiac muscle tissue.
Chordae tendineae – connects to the cusps of the
tricuspid valve which are connected to papillary muscles.
Interventricular septum.
Pulmonary valve into pulmonary arteries.
Chambers Of The Heart
Left atrium – receives blood from the lungs through
the pulmonary veins.
Bicuspid (mitral) valve.
Left ventricle – receives blood from left atrium.
Trabeculae carneae – bundles of cardiac muscle tissue.
Chordae tendineae – connects to the cusps of the
bicuspid valve which are connected to papillary muscles.
Aortic valve into the ascending aorta (largest artery).
Myocardial Thickness
The function of the individual chambers
determines their thickness.
The atria pump blood a short distance and
consequently have thinner walls than the
ventricles.
The left ventricle pumps blood a greater
distance than the right at higher pressures
and has a thicker wall.
Fibrous Skeleton Of The Heart
Dense CT rings that surround the valves and
prevent overstretching.
Provides insertion points for bundles of
cardiac muscle fibers.
Atrioventricular (AV) Valves
Tricuspid and bicuspid valves.
When the valve is open, the pointed cusps
point into the ventricle.
Atrioventricular (AV) Valves
When atrial pressure is higher than ventricular
pressure the valves open (the papillary muscles are
relaxed and the chordae tendinae is slack.
When the ventricles contract the pressure forces the
AV valves closed. The papillary muscles close
concurrently.
Damaged valves allow regurgitation (flow back).
Semilunar (SL) Valves
The aortic and pulmonary valves.
The SL valves open when the pressure in the
ventricles exceeds the pressure in the
arteries.
Heart Valve Disorders
Stenosis (narrowing) – failure of the heart
valve to open fully.
Insufficiency (incompetence) – failure of a
valve to close fully.
Mitral stenosis – due to scar formation of a
congenital defect.
Heart Valve Disorders
Mitral insufficiency – backflow of blood
from the left ventricle to the left atrium.
Mitral valve prolapse (MVP) – one or both cusps
protrude into the left atrium during ventricular
contraction.
Aortic stenosis – the aortic valve is
narrowed.
Heart Valve Disorders
Aortic insufficiency – backflow of blood
from the aorta into the left ventricle.
Rheumatic fever – an acute systemic
inflammatory disease. Antibodies produced
to destroy the bacteria attack and inflame the
CT of joints, heart valves and other organs.
Systemic And Pulmonary
Circulations
Two closed systems.
The output of one becomes the input of
another with each beat of the heart.
Coronary Circulation
The myocardium has its own blood vessels, the
coronary circulation.
The coronary arteries branch from the ascending
aorta and encircle the heart.
When the heart is contracting the coronary arteries
are squeezed shut.
When the heart is relaxed, the high pressure from
the aorta pushes blood into the coronary arteries
and from the arteries to the coronary veins.
Coronary Arteries
Two coronary arteries, right and left
coronary arteries, branch from the ascending
aorta and supply oxygenated blood to the
myocardium.
Coronary Arteries
Left coronary artery branches into:
Anterior interventricular or left anterior
descending LAD (supplies ventricle walls).
Circumflex branches (supplies left ventricle and
left atrium).
Coronary Arteries
Right coronary artery branches into:
Atrial branches (supplies right atrium).
Posterior interventricular branch (supplies the
two ventricles).
Right marginal branch (supplies the right
ventricle).
Coronary Veins
The great cardiac vein (anterior) and the
middle cardiac vein (posterior) drain into the
coronary sinus.
Coronary Sinus – a large bascular sinus on
the posterior surface of the heart.
Reperfusion Damage
Reperfusion is reestablishing the blood flow
to the heart muscle after a blockage of a
coronary artery.
Reperfusion damages the tissue further due
to the formation of oxygen free radicals from
the reintroduced oxygen.
Histology Of Cardiac Muscle
Tissue
Cardiac muscle fibers are shorter in length
and less circular than skeletal muscle fibers.
Cardiac muscle fibers exhibit branching.
Histology Of Cardiac Muscle
Tissue
Usually one centrally located nucleus is present,
although it may occasionally have two nuclei.
Intercalated disc connect neighboring fibers.
The discs contain desmosomes, which hold the fibers
together.
Mitochondria are larger and more numerous in
cardiac muscle fiber.
Gap junctions allow for propagation of action
potentials.
Regeneration Of Heart Cells
Infarcted (dead) cardiac muscle tissue is
replaced with non-contractile fibrous scar
tissue.
A lack of stem cells limits the ability of the
heart to repair damage.
Some stem cells from the blood migrate into
the heart tissues and differentiate into
functional muscle cells and endothelial cells.
Autorhythmic Fibers: The
Conduction System
Autorhythmic fibers are self-excitable and
maintain the heart’s continuous beating.
Act as a pacemaker, setting the rhythm of
electrical excitation that causes contraction of a
heart.
Form a conduction system, that provides a path
for the cycle of cardiac excitation through the
heart.
Sequence Of Cardiac
Conduction
Sinoatrial (SA) node – undergo spontaneous
depolarization (pacemaker potential) –
propagates through the atria through gap
junctions.
Atrioventricular (AV) node (bundle of his) –
site where action potentials are conducted
from the atria to the ventricles.
Sequence Of Cardiac
Conduction
Right and left bundle branches – propagate
action potentials through the ventricles and
the interventricular septum to the apex of the
heart.
Purkinje fibers – conduct the action
potentials from the apex, through the
remainder of the ventricles stimulating
contraction.
Pacemaker
The SA node regulates the pace of the heart.
At rest, it contracts approximately 100 time
per minute.
Nerve impulses from the ANS and blood
born hormones (epinephrine) modify the
timing and strength of each heartbeat.
Pacemaker
Acetylcholine from the ANS slows the heart
rate to about 75 bpm.
If the SA node becomes damaged, the AV
node can pick up the job; However, at a
slower rate (40 – 60 bpm).
If both nodes are damaged, an artificial
pacemaker sends out electrical currents to
stimulate the heart to contract.
Ectopic Pacemaker
If a site other than the SA node becomes selfexcitable, it becomes an ectopic pacemaker.
It make operate occasionally, producing extra
beats, or for a period of time.
Triggers:
Caffeine, nicotine, electrolyte imbalances,
hypoxia, and toxic reactions to drugs.
Refractory Period
In cardiac muscle tissue, the refractory
period lasts longer than the contraction
period.
This prevents tetanus (maintained
contraction).
Electrocardiogram (ECG or
EKG)
As action potentials propagate through the
heart, they generate electrical currents that
can be detected on the surface of the body.
An electrocardiogram is a recording of these
signals.
An electrocardiograph is the instrument used
to record the signals.
Electrocardiogram (ECG or
EKG)
Electrodes are positioned on the arms and
legs (limb leads) and at six positions on the
chest (chest leads).
12 different tracings are produced from
different combinations of leads.
Electrocardiogram (ECG or
EKG)
If these tracings are compared to one another
and to a normal tracing, it is possible to
determine the following:
If the conducting pathway is abnormal.
If the heart is enlarged.
If certain regions of the heart are damaged.
Typical Lead II Record
Three clearly recognizable waves appear
with each heartbeat.
P wave – atrial depolarization.
QRS complex – rapid ventricular
depolarization.
T wave – ventricular repolarization.
Changes In Wave Size
Large P waves – enlargement of the atrium.
Large Q waves – myocardial infarction.
Large R waves – enlarged ventricles.
Flat T wave – insufficient oxygen.
Large T wave – hyperkalemia (high blood
K+ levels).
Stress Electrocardiogram
(Stress Test)
Elevate the heart’s response to stress.
Narrowed coronary arteries may carry
adequate blood supply at rest, but not during
exercise.
Changes In Time Span
Between Waves
Time spans between waves are called intervals or
segments.
P-Q interval – time between the beginning of the P
wave and the beginning of the QRS complex.
The P-Q interval represents the time required for an
action potential to travel through the atria, AV node
and remaining fibers of the conduction system.
Changes In Time Span
Between Waves
The P-Q interval lengthens when the action
potentials must travel around scar tissue from
rheumatic fever.
The S-T segement is elevated in acute myocardial
infarction and depressed when the heart receives
insufficient oxygen.
The Q-T interval may be lengthened by myocardial
damage, myocardial ischemia, or conduction
abnormalities.
Terminology
Systole – the phase of contraction.
Diastole – the phase of relaxation.
Cardiac cycle – all of the events associated
with one heartbeat (systole and diastole of
the atria and systole and diastole of the
ventricles).
Heart Sounds
Auscultation – listening to sounds within the
body (performed with a stethoscope).
During each cardiac cycle there are 4 heart
sounds, but in a normal heart, only the first
and second heart sounds (S1 and S2) are loud
enough to be heard with a stethoscope.
Heart Sounds
The first sound (S1), described as a lubb
sound, is louder and longer than the second.
Caused by closure of the AV valves after
ventricular systole begins.
The second sound (S2), described as dupp
sound, is shorter and not as loud as S1.
Caused by closure of the semilunar valves as
ventricular diastole begins.
Heart Sounds
S3 is due to blood turbulence from rapid
ventricular filling.
S4 is due to blood turbulence during atrial
systole.
S3 and S4 are not normally heard.
Heart Murmurs
A heart murmur is an abnormal sound
consisting of a clicking, rushing, or gurgling
noise that is heard before, between, or after
the normal heart sounds. It can also mask the
normal heart sounds.
Some heart murmurs are “innocent”;
However, they usually represent a valve
disorder.
Congestive Heart Failure
In CHF, the heart is a failing pump.
Causes include coronary artery disease,
congenital defects, long-term high blood
pressure (increases afterload), myocardial
infarctions, valve disorders.
Pulmonary edema – left ventricle fails first.
Peripheral edema – right ventricle fails first.
Regulation Of Heart Rate
Autonomic regulation of heart rate.
Proprioceptors, chemoreceptors, baroreceptors.
Cardiac accelerator nerves.
Chemical regulation of heart rate.
Hormones (epinephrine, norepinephrine, and
thyroid hormones) accelerate the heart rate.
Cations.
Terminology
Tachycardia – elevated resting heart rate.
Bradycardia – a resting heart rate under 60
bpm.
Hypothermia – lowering of the body
temperature, which slows the heart rate.
Disorders Of The Heart
Coronary artery disease (CAD).
Arteriosclerosis and atherosclerosis.
Disorders Of The Heart
Myocardial ischemia and infarction.
Hypoxia.
Angina pectoris.
Disorders Of The Heart
Congenital defects.
Coarctation of the aorta.
Patent ductus arteriosus.
Septal defect.
Atrial and ventricular.
Tetralogy of Fallot.
Disorders Of The Heart
Arrhythmias – irregularity of the heart
rhythm.
Heart block.
Flutter and fibrillation.
Ventricular premature contraction.
Medical Terminology
Angiocardiography – x-ray examination of the heart
and great vessels with radiopaque dye.
Cardiac arrest.
Cardiomegaly.
Cor pulmonale (CP) – ventricular hypertrophy from
disorders that bring about hypertension in the
pulmonary circulation.
Palpitation.