Transcript Document

MESOPOTAMIA
Sumer
c4000-2340BC
Akkad
c2340-2180BC
Lagash
c2180-2150BC
Third Dynasty of Ur
c2112-2000BC
Babylonia
c1792-1750BC
Hittite (Anatolia)
c1595-1200BC
Assyria
c1000-612BC
Neo Babylonia
c612-539BC
Persia
c539-331BC
SUMER
• The creators of Mesopotamian civilization were the
Sumerians. By 3000BC they had established a number of
independent city-states, including Ur, Lagash, Eridu, Uruk,
and Umma.
• Government was a Theocracy (Government by divine
authority) Kings derived their authority from the gods.
Because of the location and geography of Mesopotamia,
there were constant invasions and war.
• A continuity of culture is discernible, however, because
subsequent civilizations adopted many features of the
Sumerian culture. It became the “mother culture” for
Mesopotamia.
• Sumerians are credited with the invention of the wheel
(3000BC), the round arch, invention of the potter’s wheel,
the study of astronomy and metallurgy (This advancement
resulted in metal weapons).
Pictographs were used to record
inventories of cattle and other
accounting transactions. These were
scratched into clay plaques.By 30002900BC this method had been
simplified into wedge shaped marks
known as Cuneiform. Cuneiform
characters which were used for
administrative and economic
purposes. Sumerian language evolved
from pictures of concrete objects to
simplified and stylized signs, leading
eventually to a phonetic system that
made possible the written expression
of abstract ideas.
White Temple & Ziggurat, Uruk, c3200-3000BC
Most important building in the city was a temple, dedicated to the chief god or goddess of
the city. It was often built atop a massive stepped, pyramidal tower, built with mud bricks,
called a ziggurat. (Tombs were not a feature of the ziggurat.)
The Ziggurat was formed of mud bricks, 40’ in height,
with a temple atop, located in the center of the city. It
was pyramidal in shape, consisting of a series of
platforms, each decreasing in size as the structure grew
higher.
The corners were oriented to the cardinal points.
The temple itself not accommodate a large number of
worshipers, probably only the priests, ruling aristocracy,
and other community leaders.
The construction reflected Sumerian beliefs in the
residence of the gods being in the sky. The main
entrance was on the opposite side to the base of the
stairway on the ziggurat. The worshiper climbed the
stairs and had to turn corners and change directions, just
as if he were climbing a mountain (contrast to straight
angle axis of Egyptian Temples).
White Temple & Ziggurat, Uruk, c3200-3000BC
Mesopotamian Gods
Sumerian Gods
Enlil
god of the air; a productive, beneficent creator
who ensures good harvests
Anu
supreme god of the heavens
Enki
(Akkadian Ea) god of water, arts and crafts, and
wisdom
Ninhursag: the Great Mother and Lady of the Mountain,
goddess of the earth, and Anu’s consort
Utu
(Akkadian Shamash) sun god, judge, and
protector
Nanna (Akkadian Sin) god of the moon
Inanna (Akkadian Ishtar) goddess of fertility, love, and
war
Nergal & Ereshkigal: queen and king of the underwork
Face of Woman from Ur
(Uruk, c3500BC Ivory,
8”)
Originally designed to
have hair (perhaps of gold
leaf). Colored shell or
stone would probably have
filled the recesses for the
eyebrows and the large
eyes.
Drilled for attachment to a
head and body. (This was
the facial mask)
Warka Vase, Uruk, c3200BC, Alabaster 3’
The vase is an example of Sumerian narrative art
(may have been the first), depicting offerings being
made to Inanna (the Sumerian goddess of love and
war, later known as Ishtar. Most important female
diety in Mesopotamian history)
The vase is divided into 3 friezes (bands or registers)
with relief sculptures.
The friezes are read from bottom to top.
The lowest frieze shows sheep and rams arranged
above barley and flax and a wavey line representing
flowing water. The animals are in profile, but unlike
previous prehistoric paintings of animals, there is a
ground line.
The central frieze depicts a procession of men
carrying baskets filled with offerings for the god. The
men are shown in a composite view, including both
frontal and side views. The combination was
intended to show the characteristic view of each
component.
The top frieze depicts a female with a headdress
(Inanna or a priestess). A priest- king and attendants
are depicted presenting offerings to Inanna.
Gardner’s, Adams and Stokstad write that
these are all worshipers. The size
difference indicative of the differences it
social status or the amount of their
offerings. Janson believes that the tallest is
Abu, the second a mother goddess, and the
rest priests and worshipers. All agree that
the wide open eyes conveyed a sense of
awe in the presence of divinity.
Statues from the Abu Temple
Tell Asmar, c2700BC, Marble, 30”
An association of animals
with deities is a carry-over
from prehistoric times; we
find in not only in
Mesopotamia but in Egypt
as well. What distinguishes
the sacred animals of the
Sumerians is the active part
they play in mythology.
Much of this lore,
unfortunately, has not come
down to us in written form,
but tantalizing glimpses of
it can be caught in pictorial
representations such as
those on an inlaid panel
from a harp. We can regard
them as the earliest known
ancestors of the animal
fable that flourished in the
West from Aesop to La
Fontaine.
Bull Lyre c2685
Wood and Gold inlaid with
shell, lapis, & red limestone
Shu Bab Ram with the Tree of
Life, c2600BC, Wood,gold &
Lapis lazuli
Ram was a sacred animal
Standard of Ur, c2600BC Wood inlaid with shell, lapis, and red limestone.
The Standard of Ur is a rectangular box with sloping
sides. Its function is unknown. On the two long sides
there are depicted scenes of war on one side and
scenes of peace on the other. It is unclear if they are a
single narrative. On the War side, the lower frieze
depicts chariots driving over enemy figures. The
middle frieze soldiers lead away enemy captives. The
top frieze shows soldiers presenting enemy captives
to the king. His importance is denoted by his larger
size (hierarchical proportions).
On the Peace side, the lower frieze shows men
carrying provisions or possibly war booty. The
middle register shows attendants leading animals and
carrying fish, probably for the feast on the top
register. On the top register the king is seated (larger
size) for the great feast.
Head of Akkadian Ruler
c2300BC (Probably Sargon)
In 2340BC Sargon, leader of the
Akkadians, overran the Sumerian citystates and established a dynastic empire.
Later in his rule he elevated himself to the
status of a god. Akkad was located just
north of Sumer.
Victory Stele of Naram-Sin,
c2300BC Pink sandstone, 6.5’
(Stele: An upright stone slab or
pillar, usually carved or inscribed for
commemorative purposes.)
Naram-Sin, Sargon’s grandson, had
this stele carved to commemorate the
military victory over the Lullubi (a
people of the Iranian mountains).
There is no ground line, the
composition is hieratic in both
spatial and relational aspects.
Votive Statue of Gudea
c2120BC, diorite 29”
About 2180BC the Akkadian empire fell to the Guti, a
mountain people from the northeast. They controlled
most of the Mesoptamian plain, except for Lagash.
During this period Lagash was ruled by the pious
Gudea. This devoted ruler had several of the temples
reconstructed and new ones built. Sculptures, depicting
his own devotion and just rule were situated in the
temples. He had sculptures of diorite made of himself
(often wearing a sheepskin hat). This very hard stone
was carved with less detail, but finished in a manner
more sophisticated than the earlier sculpture from Tell
Asmar. Egyptian sculptures utilized this stone in many
works depicting the pharoahs. Sumerian sculptors
rounded off the forms to emphasize their cylinderical
nature, and unlike the Egyptians, suggested muscular
tension in the arms and shoulders.
Ziggurat, Ur, c2100BC
Third Dynasty of Ur: Neo-Sumerian, c2112-2000BC
Rule in Mesopotamia had reverted to city-states. Ur-Nammu of Ur succeeded in reunifying
much of Mesopotamia in 2125BC, and established the final dominance of Sumerian culture
in Mesopotamia. The economy flourished and new temples and canals were built, but
invasions by nomadic tribes over a lengthy period (almost 300 years) caused chaos in the
region. The best preserved and considerably larger ziggurat at Ur was built during the
Neo-Sumerian period, when the Sumerians temporarily regained power after the
collapse of the Akkadian Empire, about 2180BC. Three stairways, each of a hundred
steps, converge at the top of the first platform; others ascended a second and then a third
level, on which stood the temple. The remaining masses of brickwork, recently somewhat
restored, dominate the plain for many miles. The original monument, perhaps planted with
trees and other vegetation, must have made a majestic setting for religious ceremonials.
The Goddess Lilith, c2025-1763BC,
terra-cotta, ht. 20”
Mesopotamia reverted to its former chaotic
pattern of conflicting city-states. From the
brief Isin-Larsa period (2025-1763BC), so
called from the ascendancy of the of the
cities bearing these names, dates a terracotta relief of extraordinary power and beauty,
the first voluptuous female nude known from
antiquity. This creature, at once alluring and
frightening, represents the goddess of death,
the baleful Lilith, possibly the screech owl of
Isaiah. Adorned only with gigantic earrings and
the characteristic four-tiered headdress of a
deity, she smilingly upholds, behind her head,
a looped cord - either the symbol of human life
or the instrument with which she brings it to an
end. Her great wings a partially spread behind
her full-breasted, round-hipped body. Instead
of feet she has terrible feathered talons;
flanked by staring owls, she perches upon the
rumps of two lions back-to-back. Originally, her
body was painted red, one owl black and the
other red, and the manes of the lions black.
The setting is established by the pattern of
scales along the base, a conventionalized of
the sacred mountain.
BABYLON - Hammurabi’s Reign
c1792-1750BC
Finally in 1792BC Hammurabi, a
Babylonian ruler (from the Arabian
desert to the west known as
Amorites whose capital was
Babylon) gained control of Sumer,
Akkad and reunified Mesopotamia.
Sumerian culture was assimilated
and thereby passed on. He was most
famous for establishing the first
codfied law. known as the Code of
Hammurabi.
This code of laws defined a law with
severe penalties, but varying
according to the social class of the
offender. The rights of the wealthy
were favored over the poor, freemen
over slaves, and men over women.
Stele of Hammurabi
, 1792-1750BC,
basalt, 6’
The laws of
Hammurabi are listed
on the stone
The top high relief
sculpture depicts
Hammurabi
and the diety,
Shamash, the sun
god.
Stele of
Hammurabi ,
1792-1750BC,
basalt, 6’
Hammurabi made his capital, Babylon, the intellectual and cultural
center of the ancient Near East. One of his great accomplishments was
the first systematic codification of his people’s rights, duties, and
punishments for wrong doing, which was engraved on the Stele of
Hammurabi. This black basalt stele depicts a legendary event and as a
historical document that records a conversation about justice between
god and man. At the top of the stele, we see Hammurabi on a
mountaintop, indicated by the three flat tiers on which Shamash, the sun
god and god of justice, rests his feet. Hammurabi listens respectfully,
standing in an attitude of prayer. Shamash sits on a backless throne,
dressed in long flounced robe and crowned by a conical horned cap.
Flames rise from his shoulders, and he holds additional symbols of his
power, the measuring rod and the rope circle, as he gives the law the the
king Hammurabi, the intermediary between the god and the people.
From there, the laws themselves flow forth in horizontal bands of
exquisitely engraved cuneiform signs. The idea of god-given laws
engraved on stone tables is a long-standing tradition in the ancient Near
East. A prologue on the front of the stele lists the temples Hammurabi
has restored, and an epilogue on the back glorifies Hammurabi as a
peacemaker, but most of the stele was clearly intended to ensure
uniform treatment of people throughout his kingdom. Most of the 300
or so entries that follow deal with commercial and property matters.
Only 68 relate to domestic problems, and a mere 20 deal with physical
assault. Punishments were based on the wealth, class, and gender of the
parties, the rights of the wealthy were favored over the poor, freemen
over slaves, men over women.
Lion Gate, c1400BC
Hittite guardian beasts at the gate to their strongly fortified capital.
Hittite War God
c1400BC, stone 6’5”
Babylon was sacked by the Hittites
c1595BC, ending the Old Babylonian period.
They returned to their homeland (Anatolia,
current day Turkey) and leaving Babylon
in the hands of the Kassites (from central
Asia) who controlled this area weakly
for almost half a century.
LAMASSU-Winged humanheaded bull, c883BC
From the palace of Assurnasirpal II,
Nimrud, limestone, 10 ft. high
Acted as guardian-protectors of palaces and
throne rooms.
When seen from the front appear to be
immobile, however when seen from the side
they seem to be striding forward.
Assyria had gained power by c1400BC.
After c1000BC they began to invade and
conquer neighboring city states. By the
c800BC they controlled most of
Mesopotamia and by c700 they had
extended their influence as far west as
Egypt. But internal weakness and external
political forces caused the empire’s collapse
by c600BC.
Assurnasirpal II Killing Lions, c850BC Limestone
The personal glorification of the king was served by another recurrent subject, the royal
lion hunts. These were more in the nature of ceremonial combats than actual hunts; the
animals were released from cages within a hollow square formed by troops with shields,
for the king to kill. (Presumably, at a much earlier time, the hunting of lions in the field
had been an important duty of Mesopotamian rulers as the shepherds of the communal
flocks.) The lion attacking the royal chariot from the rear is clearly the hero of the scene.
Of magnificent strength and courage, the wounded animal seems to embody all the
dramatic emotion that we miss in the pictorial accounts of war.
Dying Lioness, c650BC, linestone, from Nineveh
The lion hunt reliefs from Nineveh, about two centuries later than those of Nimrud,
are the finest of all. Despite the shallowness of the actual carving, the bodies have a
greater sense weight and volume because of the subtle gradations of the surface.
Images such as the dying lioness have an unforgettable tragic grandeur.
To describe the progress of specific
events in time and space had been
outside the scope of both Egyptian and
Sumerian art; even the scene on the Stele
of Naram-Sin is symbolic rather than
historic. The Assyrian artist thus had to
develop an entirely new set of devices in
order to cope with the problem of
pictorial storytelling. If his results can
hardly ever be called beautiful, they
achieve their main purpose - to be
clearly readable. This relief shows the
sack of the Elamite city of Hamanu in
the main register: Assyrian soldiers with
pickaxes and crowbars are demolishing
the fortifications - notice the falling
timbers and bricks in mid air - after they
have set fire to the town itself; others are
marching away from it, down a wooded
hill, laden with booty.
The Sack of the City of Hamanu by
Ashurbanipal, c650BC, limestone, Nineveh
Ishtar Gate,
Babylon
c575BC
The Chaldeans, a
Semitic speaking
people, had gained
ascendancy in
Babylonia by c600BC,
and came to form the
chief resistance to
Assyrian control of
Mesopotamia.
The Chaldean king
Nabopolassar (625-605BC),
joined forces with the
Medes (From Media in
western Iran) to capture
the Assyrian capital at
Nineveh in 612BC. The
Scythians (a nomadic
people from southern
Russia) also invaded
Assyria from the northeast.
His son Nebuchadnezzar II
(605-562BC) achieved final
victory over the Assyrians,
defeated Egypt and gained
control of Syria and
Palestine. Babylon was
rebuilt as the center of the
Babylonian Empire. The
Hanging Gardens and the
great Marduk ziggurat (the
Bible’s Tower of Babel) were
considered to be two of the
great wonders of the world
by the Greeks.
Striding Lion - Panel from the Processional Way, c604-562 BC Composed of glazed bricks.
The figure of the lion was molded in low relief before the bricks were glazed and fired.
The city of Babylon straddles the Euphrates River, which could be crossed by via a bridge
or by ferry boats. The city was surrounded by thick masonry walls with eight principal
gates that provided entrance to the city. Each of these gates was dedicated top a major
protective deity. On the eastern side of the Euphrates, the city was crossed by a broad paved
street that was up to 60 ft. wide. This thoroughfare was know as the Processional Way since
it was the path that led to a ritual temple. It passed one of the northern entrances know as
the Ishtar Gate. A series of striding lions lined this Processional Way for more than 500 ft.
Palace of Darius I, Persepolis, Iran
There were no Achaemenid temples
since religious rituals were held
outdoors, where fires were burned on
altars. Their architecture was most
notable in the great palaces, especially in
Persepolis. It was built on a stone
platform with and consisted of columned
buildings. The most significant building
was the Apadana (Audiance Hall). It was
decorated with 100 columns, each 40’
tall. The column show Egyptian and
Greek influences, but the bull capitals
were unique to Persia.
Achaemenid Gold Rhyton,
Drinking vessel,
5thCenturyBC
Repose: Technique for
producing this vessel, design
hammered from the back.
Parts of this presentation are used under the Fair Use Exemption of
U.S. Copyright Law.
RESOURCES
• Adams, Laurie. Art Across Time (New York: McGraw Hill, 1999).
• Campbell, Joseph. The Masks of God (New York: Viking Press, 1969).
• Janson, H.W.. History of Art (New York: Harry N. Abrams, Inc., 1986).
• Kleiner, Fred, Mamiya, Christin, & Tansey, Richard. Gardner’s Art Through the Ages11th edition (New York: Harcourt College Publishers, 2001).
• Skokstad, Marilyn. Art History (New York: Harry N. Abrams, Inc., 2002).
• Speilvogel, Jackson. Western Civilization (Belmont: Wadsworth, 2003).
• West, Shearer, The Bulfinch Guide to Art History (New York: Little, Brown, & Co.,
1996).