Transcript TABLE OF CONTENTS - Istituto B. Pascal

ENGLISH GRAMMAR
CLASS II
LICEO DELLE SCIENZE UMANE AD INDIRIZZO
SPORTIVO
TABLE OF CONTENTS
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MODULE I: MUST, HAVE TO, SHOULD, CAN, COULD, MIGHT, MAY,
PAST CONTINUOUS
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MODULE II: PRESENT PERFECT, STRUCTURE OF THE PRESENT
PERFECT, PRESENT PERFECT VS PAST SIMPLE, TIME EXPRESSIONS
WITH PRESENT PERFECT
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MODULE III: PRESENT PERFECT CONTINUOUS, STRUCTURE OF
THE PRESENT PERFECT CONTINUOUS, FOR AND SINCE, PRESENT
PERFECT VS PRESENT PERFECT CONTINUOUS
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MODULE IV: FUTURE TENSES WITH PRESENT SIMPLE, PRESENT
CONTINUOUS, BE GOING TO, WILL
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MODULE V: CONDITIONAL SENTENCES: CONDITIONAL 0, FIRST
CONDITIONAL, SECOND CONDITIONAL, THIRD CONDITIONAL.
MODULE I – MUST, HAVE TO, SHOULD
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Use 'must' to express something that you or a person feels is necessary. This form is used
only in the present and future. The negative form of 'must' expresses the idea that
something is prohibited!
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Examples: I must finish this work before I leave. Must you work so hard? John must
explain this if he wants his students to succeed. She mustn't use such horrible language.
Tom. You mustn't play with fire.
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Use 'have to' in the past, present and future to express responsibility or necessity. NOTE:
'have to' is conjugated as a regular verb and therefore requires an auxiliary verb in the
question form or negative. The negative form of 'have to' expresses the idea that something
is not required. It is however, possible if so desired.
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Examples: We have to get up early. She had to work hard yesterday. They will have to
arrive early. You don't have to arrive before 8. They didn't have to work so hard.
MODULE I – MUST, HAVE TO, SHOULD
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Must' and 'Have to' in the positive or question form are used to speak about
responsibilities and obligations. Sometimes, 'must' and 'have to' can be
exchanged, but the general rule is that must is used for strong personal
obligations (I must do this right now!) and have to is used for responsibilities (I
have to file reports every week.) 'Don't have to' and 'Mustn't' have very different
meanings. 'Don't have to' is used to express that something is not required.
'Mustn't' is used to express that something is prohibited. In general, 'must' is used
in everyday situations in which something important occurs and requires an
immediate action. 'Have to' is often used to discuss our daily responsibilities and
is commonly used to describe workplace situations. Many times, 'have to' is used
in place of 'must' in informal English.
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'Should' is used when asking for or giving advice. It is also used when asking for
suggestions. 'Should' expresses a personal opinion and is much weaker and more
personal than 'must' or 'have to'. It is often introduced by ' I think'.
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I don't think you should work so hard.
MODULE I – CAN, COULD, MIGHT, MAY
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Use 'can' or 'be able to' to express an ability or possibility. NOTE: The future of
'be able to' is 'will be able to. Could in the past means the general ability to do
something. Examples:
He can play tennis well. She is able to speak five languages. They can come on
Friday. He could swim when he was five.
Use 'might' or 'may' to express an opinion that you think has a good possibility
of being true. Use 'could' to express a possibilty which is one of many. This form
is not as strong as 'might' or 'may'. It is just one of a number of possibilities. Use
'can't' to express an opinion that you are 100% sure is NOT true. Examples:
She might come this evening.
David may invite Jessica to the match.
Jack might have gone to France.
Jane could be at work.
Peter could have arrived late
You can't be serious!
They can't have worked until late.
MODULE I – PAST CONTINUOUS
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The past continuous is used to express something that is happening at a precise moment in the past. For example, Jack was
working on the report last night at 10.15.
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The past continuous is most often used to express an interrupted action expressed using the past simple. For example, Janet
was talking on the phone when I arrived.
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The past continuous, and continuous forms in general, are used with action verbs such as talk, drive, play, etc. The
continuous form is not used with stative verbs such as 'be', 'seem', 'taste', etc. Some stative verbs can be used as action verbs
so there are some exceptions. For example: 'smell' - It smelled good. (stative verb) / He was smelling the roses when she
walked by the window. (action verb) Examples:He seemed very sad.It tasted very bitter.
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Time Expressions with Past Continuous for Past Action at a Specific Moment in the PasT.
At / At that Moment: 'At' and 'at that moment' refer to a specific point of time in the past. These two expressions are often
used with the past continuous. It is more common to use the past simple to speak in general, but if you want to express what
was happening at a precise moment of time in the past, use the past continuous .Examples: She was having breakfast at 6.45
this morning. We were working on his request at 10 pm.
When / As 'When' is used with the past simple to express an important event that occurred in the past. The past continuous
is used to express what was happening at that moment. Examples: They were getting ready when he came home. What were
you doing when he asked the question?
While 'While' is used with the past continuous to express something that was happening at the same moment in time that
something else was occurring
.During 'During' is used with a noun or a noun phrase to express an event during which something was happening
.Examples :I was typing while he was dictating. She wasn't paying attention during the meeting. Jackson was working while
she was having a good time.
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MODULE II – PRESENT PERFECT
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The present perfect is used to say what has happened recently and has an effect on the present
moment.
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Examples Have you seen Mary yet? They've already had dinner. She's just been to the dentist's.
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The present perfect is also used to express something which has happened up to the present
moment of time .Examples: Have you worked here for a long time? Peter's lived here since 1987.
She hasn't had much fun this week.
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When speaking about an experience that has happened at an UNSPECIFIED point in time
before the present moment use the present perfect.
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In this use of the present perfect, we are talking about things that have happened up to the present
moment. Whenever you speak about something that has happened up to now without giving a
precise point in time, use the present perfect.
MODULE II – PRESENT PERFECT STRUCTURE
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Positive Form: Subject + have + past
participle + object(s)
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Examples: Peter's lived here since
1987. We've been very busy today.
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Negative Form: Subject + have + not +
past participle + object(s)
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Examples: I haven't been to class very
often this month. She hasn't had much
fun this week.
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Question Form: (Wh?) + have + subject
+ past participle?
Examples: Have you worked here for a
long time? Where have you been?
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The past participle of regular verbs ends in -ed,
for example:work, worked, worked. But you
should note the following points:1. Some verbs
can be both regular and irregular, for example:
learn, learned, learned learn, learnt, learnt. 2.
Some verbs change their meaning depending on
whether they are regular or irregular, for
example "to hang": regular hang, hanged,
hanged to kill or die, by dropping with a rope
around the neck, irregular hang, hung, hung to
fix something (for example, a picture) at the top
so that the lower part is free.
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But with irregular verbs, there is no rule...
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Has gone to vs. Has been to... has/have gone to
... refers to someone who has gone to a place
but has not yet returned.
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... has/have been to ... refers to a place which
someone has visited sometime in his life. In
other words, "has been to" refers to an
experience.
MODULE II – PRESENT PERFECT VS PAST SIMPLE
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Sometimes the past simple and the present perfect are confused. It is important
to remember that the past simple is used to express a finished past action which
occurs at a specific moment in the past. The present perfect is used to express
something that happened at an unspecified moment in the past. For example, if
I visited Paris in 2004, I could express this in two ways:
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Past Simple: I visited Paris in 2004.I went to Paris a few years ago.
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Note that the moment in time is specific - in 2004, a few years ago.
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Present Perfect: I've been to Paris. I've visited Paris.
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In this case, the moment of my visit is not specific. I am speaking about an
experience that I have had in my life up to this moment in time. This is the key
to understanding the difference between the past simple and the present perfect.
The past simple expresses something which happened at a specific time in the
past. The present perfect expresses something that I have experienced in my life
without giving the exact time.
MODULE II – TIME EXPRESSIONS WITH PRESENT
PERFECT
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ALREADY - YET (used as adverbs in sentences with a verb in the present perfect tense
when we are talking about personal experiences) ALREADY : Sooner than expected
(affirmative sentences and some questions) They’ve already sold 12 million bands. Have
you already done your homework? YET : The speaker is expecting something to happen
(negative sentences and questions) He hasn’t found a sponsor yet . Has the programme
started yet ? Mid position (before main verb) End position (end of sentence)
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Other TIME EXPRESSIONS used with the present perfect tense: (In sentences with a verb
in the present perfect tense when we are talking about personal experiences) JUST : Only a
moment ago The train has just left. EVER : At any time Have you ever done any charity
challenges? We haven’t ever eaten in this restaurant. NEVER : At no time I’ve never been
there. Mid position (before main verb) Mid position (before main verb) Mid position
(before main verb)5. RECENTLY : At a time immediately before the present Has Janet
talked to him recently ? LATELY : Not long ago Have you seen her lately ? ONCE: One
time I’ve been to London once in my life. TWICE: Two times I’ve been to London twice in
my life. THREE TIMES...: I’ve been to Paris three times in the last 5 years. Usually, end
position Usually, end position Usually, towards the end of sentence Usually, towards the
end of sentence Usually, towards the end of sentence
MODULE III – PRESENT PERFECT CONTINUOUS
 The present perfect continuous is used, like the present perfect
simple, to express an action which begins in the past and
continues up to the present moment. For example, My parents
have been travelling since early this morning.
 BOTH the present perfect and present perfect can be used
when expressing the duration of an activity that begins in the
past and continues into the present. We tend to use the present
perfect continuous to describe the duration of a current
activity happening at the moment. For example, I've been
reading this book since 10 this morning. On the other hand,
the present perfect is used to describe states or more general
activity. For example, Jack has lived in California most of his
life.
MODULE III – PRESENT PERFECT CONTINUOUS STRUCTURE
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The present perfect continuous is used to express how long a current activity has
been going on. It is often used in context to provide a reason for a present result.
Remember that continuous forms can only be used with action verbs. This tense
is often used with the following time expressions:...since + specific point in
time ... for + amount of time
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Basic Construction
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Positive: Subject + has / have + been + verb + ing + object(s) + time
Expression. He's been cleaning house for two hours.
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Negative: Subject + has / have not (hasn't / haven't) + been + verb + ing +
object(s) + time Expression. Janice hasn't been studying for too long.
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Question: (Question Word) + has / have + subject + been + verb + ing +
object(s) + (time Expression). How long have you been working in the garden?
MODULE III – FOR AND SINCE
 Since is used with the present perfect to express that
something has happened since a point in time.
 Examples: I've lived here since 1999. She's been working
hard since two this afternoon.
 For is used with the present perfect to express that
something has happened for a period of time.
 Examples: I've worked at this job for 10 years. Peter's
been playing tennis for two hours.
MODULE III – PRESENT PERFECT VS PRESENT
PERFECT CONTINUOUS
 We use the Present Perfect Continuous to show that
something started in the past and has continued up until now.
"For five minutes," "for two weeks," and "since Tuesday" are
all durations which can be used with the Present Perfect
Continuous. You can also use the Present Perfect Continuous
WITHOUT a duration such as "for two weeks." Without the
duration, the tense has a more general meaning of "lately."
We often use the words "lately" or "recently" to emphasize
this meaning.
 When we see an action as a finished one, we use the present
perfect simple. The present perfect simple is used when we are
interested in result.
MODULE IV – FUTURE TENSES
 PRESENT SIMPLE
 Examples: The class begins at 11.30.The plane leaves at
6 o'clock.
 Used for scheduled public events such as train and plane
schedules, course schedules, etc.
MODULE IV – FUTURE TENSES
 PRESENT CONTINUOUS
 Examples: He's coming tomorrow afternoon. What are
we having for dinner? I'm not seeing the doctor until
Friday.
 Used for planned or personally scheduled events. Usually
used with principle verbs such as: come, go, begin, start,
finish, have, etc.
MODULE IV – FUTURE TENSES
 TO BE GOING TO
 Examples: Oh no! Look at those clouds. It's going to
rain. Be careful! You're going to drop those dishes!
 Used for future predictions based on physical (usually
visual) evidence.
 Going to' or '-ing' are often both correct for planed
events. 'Going to' should be used for distant future
intentions (example: He's going to study Law)
MODULE IV – FUTURE TENSES
 WILL
 Spontaneous or immediate decision. Example: Wait, I will
help you.
 Opinion, hope, uncertainty or assumption regarding the
future. Example: He will probably come back tomorrow.
 A promise, volition. Example: I will not watch TV tonight.
 An action in the future that cannot be influenced example: It
will rain tomorrow.
MODULE V – CONDITIONAL SENTENCES
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CONDITIONAL 0
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Situations that are always true if something happens.
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NOTE. This use is similar to, and can usually be replaced by, a time clause using
'when' (example: When I am late, my father takes me to school.)
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If I am late, my father takes me to school. She doesn't worry if Jack stays out
after school.
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Conditional 0 is formed by the use of the present simple in the if clause followed
by a comma the present simple in the result clause. You can also put the result
clause first without using a comma between the clauses.
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If he comes to town, we have dinner. OR We have dinner if he comes to town.
MODULE V – CONDITIONAL SENTENCES
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CONDITIONAL 1
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Often called the "real" conditional because it is used for real - or possible situations. These situations take place if a certain condition is met.
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NOTE. In the conditional 1 we often use unless which means 'if ... not'. In other
words, '...unless he hurries up.' could also be written, '...if he doesn't hurry up.’
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He will arrive late unless he hurries up. Peter will buy a new car, if he gets his
raise.
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Conditional 1 is formed by the use of the present simple in the if clause followed
by a comma will verb (base form) in the result clause. You can also put the result
clause first without using a comma between the clauses.
MODULE V – CONDITIONAL SENTENCES
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CONDITIONAL 2
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Often called the "unreal" conditional because it is used for unreal - impossible or
improbable - situations. This conditional provides an imaginary result for a given situation.
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NOTE. The verb 'to be', when used in the 2nd conditional, is always conjugated as 'were'.
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If he studied more, he would pass the exam. I would lower taxes if I were the President.
They would buy a new house if they had more money.
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Conditional 2 is formed by the use of the past simple in the if clause followed by a comma
would verb (base form) in the result clause. You can also put the result clause first without
using a comma between the clauses.
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If they had more money, they would buy a new house. OR They would buy a new house if
they had more money.
MODULE V – CONDITIONAL SENTENCES
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CONDITIONAL 3
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Often referred to as the "past" conditional because it concerns only past
situations with hypothetical results. Used to express a hypothetical result to a
past given situation.
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If he had known that, he would have decided differently. Jane would have found
a new job if she had stayed in Boston.
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Conditional 3 is formed by the use of the past perfect in the if clause followed by
a comma would have past participle in the result clause. You can also put the
result clause first without using a comma between the clauses.
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If Alice had won the competition, life would have changed
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OR
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Life would have changed if Alice had won the competition.