Transcript [M].北京：高等教育出版社，2001.

Zhangjiang Normal
University
English Grammar
CAO Zhixi
(曹志希)
Foreign Language School, Zhanjiang
Normal University
29 Cunjinlu, Zhanjiang
524048,Guangdong, China
[email protected]
References:
[1]曹志希等.高级英语同义词辨析与惯用法
[M]. 北京：气象出版社，2000.
[2]张克礼.新英语语法
[M].北京：高等教育出版社，2001.
[3]章振邦. 新编英语语法教程
[M]. 上海：上海外语教育出版社，2004.
Grammatical Hierarchy vs. English
Usages
English Usages come from accepted
patterns of the language in life; they refer to
the accepted structures as well as regular
rules of the language.
1 Morphemes
The morpheme is the minimum or smallest
grammatical unit， also the smallest meaningful
element of speech:
(1) Free morphemes: big
(2) Bound morphemes: -ly，but: hard (adj.-adv.)
(3) Allomorphs词素变体:
cats/dogs/horses(复数词素), but:
fish-fish(pl.) :fishes, each meaning differently
2 Words
The word is composed of one or more than
one morpheme. Words can be classified in two
ways:
（1）Classification in terms of word-formation：
simple words, derivatives and compounds.
（ 2 ） Classification in terms of grammatical
function：
2 Words
Closed-class words refer to those sets of words
whose items are "closed" or limited in number
and are only exceptionally extended by the
creation of additional members;
Open-class words refer to those sets of words
whose items are indefinitely extendable. New
items are constantly being created and old items
are giving place to new ones.
3 Phrases
The phrase is composed of one or more
than one word.
（1）The noun phrase
(determiner +) (premodifier +)
noun(+postmodifier)
（2）The adjective phrase
(modifier+)adjective
(+postmodifier/complementation)
（3）The adverb phrase
(modifier+)adverb (+postmodifier)
（4）The prepositional phrase
(modifier+)preposition+complementation
（5） The verb phrase
4 Clauses
The clause is composed of one or more than on
ephrase.A full-fledged clause is structurally a
sequence of phrases and logically a construction of
"subject + predicate".
(1)Independent and dependent clauses
(2)Simple and complex clauses
(3)Main and subordinate clauses
(4)Finite and non-finite clauses
(5)Verbless clauses
5 Sentences
The sentence is the highest rank of
grammatical unit,defined as a grammatical
unit that can stand by itself and perform a
communicative function.
(1) Full and minor sentences
A: How are you?
B: Fine, thanks.
(2)Simple,compound, complex and compoundcomplex sentences
5.1 Sentence Structure
Clause elements
The clause or the simple sentence is not just an
agglomeration of phrases; it is a group of phrases
organized into a construction of "subject +
predicate".
（1） Subject and predicate
（2）Two ways of sentence analysis
i. divide the predicate into predicate verb, object,
complement and adverbial.
ii. to divide the predicate into two parts: the operator
and the predication.
5.2 Basic clause types and their
transformation and expansion
(1) Basic clause types
Seven basic clause types: SVC, SV*, SVA, SVO, SVOA, SVOC,
SVoO.
（2）Transformation and expansion of basic clause types (i)
The basic clause types are all affirmative statements with verbs in
the active voice. An affirmative clause can be transformed into a
negative; a statement into a question; and an active clause into a
passive. All these add varieties to the basic clause types.
（3）Transformation and expansion of basic
clause types (ii)
The basic clause types and their variants
can also be expanded into larger grammatical
units through adding modifiers at various levels,
and these larger units can again be expanded
through coordination and subordination into
compound, complex and compound-complex
sentences.
Introduction—Grammatical
Hierarchy
导论—语法层次
Introduction—Grammatical Hierarchy
Grammatical Hierarchy
Grammar is the structural system of
a language. The grammar of the English
languages is organized in to five ranks:
the sentence, the clause, the phrase, the
word and the morpheme. Each rank is
composed of one or more than one
grammatical unit of the immediate lower
rank. A full sentence can generally be
segmented rank by rank down to its
smallest constituents—the morpheme.
sentence
Np
Clause
Vp
Det
N
These
Aux
under
-graduate-s
Mv
are
Adv
rapidly
Prep
improving
Det
in
N
their
writhing
0.1 Morpheme (词素）
The morpheme is the minimum or
smallest grammatical unit, also the
smallest meaningful element of speech.
Morphemes fall into two categories: free
morphemes and bound morphemes.
1）Free morphemes (自由词素）
本身具有完整意义并能作为“简单词”而单独使用的词
素
Examples: boy
girl
desk
kind give take
2) Bound morphemes (粘附词素）
本身没有完整意义，不能单独使用，必须粘附在自由词
素或其他形式上才能表示出意义的词素
Examples : anti-war
Marxist
unlucky
postwar
movement co-existence
0.2 Words
The word is composed of one or more than
one morpheme.
Words can be classified in two ways:
1) Classification in terms of word-formation
2) Classification in terms of grammatical
function.
a) Simple Word (简单词）
又叫“单词素词”（morpheme word), 由单一自由词素构成，
半是一些短小的词，如：at, by, foot, take, make 等;
b) Derivative （派生词）
由词根加派生词缀构成，同一词根加不同词缀可表示不同的意
义或不同的词性。
如：unfair, nonsmoker, misjudge, overeat, international, belittle
等
c) Compound（合成词）
通常由两个或两个以上自由词素构成。
如： deadline, handbook, driveway, toothpick, downfall 等
back
• Closed Class (封闭词类)
封闭词类指所有的功能词，
包括:介词 (Preposition), 如：in, of, on, without
代词 (Pronoun), 如：you, he, one, which
限定词 (Determiner), 如：a, the, this
连词 (Conjunction), 如：and, or, but
助动词 (Auxiliary), 如：do，can, may
•
Open Class (开放词类）
开放词类指各种实义词，
包括:名词 (Noun)， 如：man, Paris, drama
形容词 (Adjective), 如：old, big, cheap
副词 (Adverb), 如：here, there, late
主动词 (Main Verb),如：work, give, make
此外还有:
基数词 (Cardinal Numeral)
序数词(Ordinal Numeral)，
感叹词(Interjection)是介乎
“封闭”与“开放”之间的词
类.
03. Phrases
The phrase is composed of one or
more than one word. Generally, the
phrase is a group of words organized
in a specific way with a key word as
its head. The word class of the head
determiners the class of the phrase
and the way in which the words are
organized.
1) The noun phrase
The noun phrase is a phrase with a noun as its
head. The general pattern of a noun phrase is:
(determiner+) (premodifier+) noun (+postmodifier)
e.g. all the college students
his new book on phonology
the tall boy sitting in the corner
the author’s new novel that will soon come out
2) The verb phrase
The verb phrase is a phrase with a main verb as
its head. A verb phrase can be simple or complex.
A simple verb phrase is just a main verb or
“modifier + main verb”. A complex verb phrase is a
main verb preceded by an auxiliary
(or auxiliaries) (+ modifier).
e.g. She looks pale.
It is getting dark.
John will certainly object and so will Mary.
3) The adjective phrase
The adjective phrase is a phrase with an adjective
as its head. The general pattern of an adjective phrase
is:
(modifier+) adjective (+postmodifier/complementation)
e.g. The weather is fine today.
The course is pretty difficult.
You’re not careful enough.
4) The adverb phrase
The adverb phrase is a phrase with an adverb as
its head. The general pattern of an adverb phrase
is:
(modifier+) adverb (+postmodifier)
e.g. He spoke loudly and clearly.
Be a man. Do not act so slowly.
She spoke very clearly indeed.
(5) The prepositional phrase
The prepositional phrase is a phrase with a
preposition as its head. The general pattern of a
prepositional phrase is:
(modifier+) preposition + complementation
e.g. We’re collecting money for the benefit of some
orphans.
The student consulted his adviser about the two
courses.
0.4 Clause
The clause is composed of one or more
than one phrase. A full-fledged clause is
structurally a sequence of phrases and
logically a construction of
“subject+predicate”.
1) Independent and dependent clauses
①An independent clause is a clause that can
stand by itself and act as a complete utterance.
e.g. He knows everything about it.
That hat does not fit; you may try another.
②A dependent clause forms only part of another
clause or of a phrase.
e.g. I don’t think he knows everything about it.
If that hat does not fit, try another.
2) Simple and complex clauses
①When a clause consists of only one construction
of “subject + predicate”, it is a simple clause.
e.g. It is not true.
He said that it was not true.
②When a clause comprises another clause or other
clauses as its element or elements, it is a complex
clause.
e.g. What you said is not true.
He complained that what you said was not true.
3) Main and subordinate clauses
In a complex clause, the clause that takes
another clause as its element is the main clause,
while the clause that forms part of the main clause
is a subordinate clause.
He complained that what you said was not true.
从句
主句
从句
主句
4) Finite and non-finite clauses
①A finite clause is one with a finite verb phrase as
its predicate verb or predicator.
e.g. He complained that what he said was not
true.
②A non-finite clause is a clause with a non-finite
verb phrase as its predicator.
e.g. I signed the paper to get the license.
Can’t you recall telling me that story last week?
5) Verbless clauses
When a clause is marked by the absence of any form
of verb element. It is a verbless clause. A verbless
clause is just a construction of “subject + predicate”
without any form of verb element.
e.g. Hungry and exhausted, the climbers
returned.
Christmas then only days away, the family
was pent up with excitement.
0.5 Sentence
The sentence is the highest rank of
grammatical unit. Based on one or more
than one clause, the sentence is also the
basic linguistic unit of connected discourse;
it can stand alone and perform a function
in social communication. Thus, a sentence
can be defined as a grammatical unit that
can perform a communicative function.
1) Full and minor sentences
①A full sentence is a sentence with an
expressed subject and predicate.
e.g. I signed the paper to get the license.
②A minor sentence is only a sentence
fragment which in specific contexts and
situation can stand by itself and perform a
communicate function.
e.g. No smoking!
2) simple, compound, Complex and
compound-complex sentences
①A simple sentence is a sentence that comprises
only one independent clause.
②Two or more coordinated independent clauses
make a compound sentence
③When an independent clause comprises one or
more dependent clauses as its elements. This makes
a complex sentence.
④Two or more coordinated independent clauses
with at least one complex clause make a compoundcomplex sentence.
Assignment
Please finish the
exercises in the
textbook.