Transcript Chapter 4 Syntax

Chapter 4 Syntax
Part IV
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Heads (核心詞)and complements
p. 140
 The head of a phrase is the word whose lexical
category defines the type of the phrase. Every
phrase has a head that has the same syntactic
category as the phrase.
 The complement of the head is the other
constituents in a phrase that complete its
meaning.
(See examples on p. 140.)
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 Every VP contains a Verb.
found a puppy
 Every NP contains a Noun.
my new house
 Every PP contains a Preposition.
in my new house
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More examples
 VP: found the puppy
 NP: the destruction of Rome
a picture of Mary
a person worthy of praise
a boy who pitched a perfect game
 PP: in the garden
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Selection
pp. 140-141
Whether a verb takes a complement or not depends on the
properties of the verb. Verbs (transitive or intransitive)
select different kinds of complements.
Examples (p. 141):
1. Put and give take both an NP and a PP complement:
She put the milk in the refrigerator.
2. Sleep can not take an NP complement: Michael slept.
3. Think selects a sentence complement, often preceded by
a complementizer that: I think that Sam won the race.
See other examples on p. 141.
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C-selection (詞類選擇)
p. 542
C-selection:
The classifying of verbs and other lexical items in terms of
the syntactic category of the complements that they accept;
sometimes called “subcategorization”
Example:
The verb find c-selects a noun phrase complement.
p. 141
The information about the complement types selected by
particular verbs and other lexical items is called c-selection
or subcategorization and is included in the lexical entry of
item in our mental lexicon.
** “C” stands for “categorial”.
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More examples
p. 141
Verbs select different kinds of complements:
(a) Put selects both an NP and a PP.
Sam put the milk in the refrigerator.
(b) Sleep can not take an NP complement.
* Michael slept a fish.
(c) Think selects a sentence as complement.
I think that Sam won the race.
(d) Tell selects an NP and an S as complement.
I told Sam that Michael was on his bicycle.
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(e) Feel selects either an AdjP or an S.
They felt strong as oxen.
They feel that they can win.
(f) Belief selects either a PP or an S.
There was a belief in freedom of speech.
Everybody learns the belief that freedom of
speech is a basic right.
(g) Tired selects a PP.
I am tired of stale sandwiches.
(h) Sympathy selects a PP.
They showed their sympathy for the victims.
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S-selection (語意選擇)
p. 561
S-selection:
The classifying of verbs and other lexical items in
terms of the semantic category of the head and the
complements that they accept.
Example:
The verb find s-selects an animate subject and a
concrete NP complement.
** “S” stands for “semantic”.
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Examples
(a) Murder requires its subject and object to be human.
(b) Drink requires its subject to be animate and its
object liquid.
(c) Like/hate selects animate subjects.
! The rock murdered the man.
! The beer drank the student.
! The tree liked the boy.
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p. 142
The well-formedness of a phrase depends
on at least two factors:
(a) Whether the phrase conforms to the phrase
structure requirements, and
(b) Whether the phrase conforms to the
selectional requirements of the head.
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What heads the sentence?
pp. 142-143
The category Aux is a natural category to head S.
Reasons:
(1) A sentence is about a situation or state of
affairs that occurs at some point in time.
(2) Aux specifies a time frame for the sentence,
whether the situation described by the
sentence will take place, already took place, or
is taking place now.
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S
NP
The boy
VP
Aux
is
may
has
VP
eating
eat
eaten
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In the tree above, VP is the complement to Aux.
The selectional relationship:
1. The Aux be (is) takes a progressive form
(V-ing) of the verb.
2. The Aux has selects a past participle (-en) form
of the verb.
3. The modal Aux (may) selects the infinitival
form (不定詞; the root form; 動詞原形) of the
verb
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X-bar theory
p. 565
Definition:
a universal schema specifying that the internal
organization of all phrasal categories can be
broken into three levels, e.g., NP, N’, and N
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p. 143
The basic X-bar schema is as follows:
XP
specifier
X’
X (head)
complement
This schema says that an XP consists of a specifier
and an X’ and that any X’ consists of an X and a
complement.
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p. 143
specifier: an optional modifier
Examples:
1. An NP specifier: a determiner
2. A VP specifier: an adverb (never, often)
3. An AdjP specifier: a degree word (very, quite)
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A new rule
VP → Aux VP (This allows recursion.)
VP
Aux
VP
Aux
VP
Aux
VP
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The schema above represents the following
sentences:
1. The child may be sleeping.
2. The dog has been barking.
3. The bird must have been flying.
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When a sentence does not have a modal,
there is a time reference for it.
S
NP
VP
N’
Aux
VP
N
Past
kicked the ball
Sam
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The matchmaker function of syntactic rules
p. 145
Aux specifies the agreement features of the
subject.
Examples:
1. If the subject is we, Aux carries the features
first-person plural.
2. If the subject is he or she, Aux carries the
features third-person singular.
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Structural ambiguities
An ambiguous sentence has more than one
structure tree, each corresponding to a different
meaning.
See the example on p. 146:
The boy saw the man with the telescope.
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A new version of the PS rules in English
p. 147
1. S →
2. NP →
3. NP →
4. NP →
5. NP →
6. N’ →
7. N’ →
8. VP →
NP VP
Det N’
N’
NP’s N’
NP PP
Adj N’
N
V
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9. VP → V NP
10. VP → V CP
11. VP → Aux VP
12. VP → VP PP
13. PP → P NP
14. CP → C S
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More phrase structure trees (pp. 148-149)
The dog completely destroyed the house.
S
NP
VP
Det
N’
Adv
The
N
completely
dog
VP
V
destroyed
NP
Det
N’
the
N
house
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The dog destroyed the house yesterday.
S
NP
VP
Det
N’
The
N
VP
Adv
V
dog destroyed
NP
Det
the
yesterday
N’
N
house
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Probably the dog has fleas.
(** Probably as sentential modifier)
S
Adv
S
Probably
NP
VP
Det
N’
V
NP
the
N
has
N’
dog
N
fleas
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Coordinate structure (pp. 148-149)
the dog and the cat
NP
NP1
CoordP
Det
N’
Coord
The
N
and
dog
NP2
Det
N’
the
N
cat
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Michael writes poetry and surfs.
S
NP
VP
N’
N
VP1
V
Michael writes
CoordP
NP
Coord
VP2
N’
and
V
N
surfs
poetry
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Main verb be
(The main verb be acts like the modal and the
auxiliaries be and have.)
The cat is coy.
TP
NP
T’
Det
N’
T
AdjP
the
N
is
Adj
cat
coy
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Draw PS trees for:
1. The cat is a feline.
2. The cat is in the tree.
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More new rules (pp. 148-149)
For PPT pp. 25-27:
1. S → Adv S
2. VP → Adv VP
For PPT pp. 28-29:
1. NP → NP CoordP
3. VP → VP Adv
2. CoordP → Coord NP
For PPT pp. 30:
1.TP→ NP T’
2. T’ → T XP (where XP = AdjP, PP, NP)
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