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古代日本語 A “Brief” Lesson By: Ding Ding Zheng Adam Solomon Daniel Bruner William Smith 奈良時代 Began in 710 Capital moved about 20 km north to 平城京（へい じょうきょう） from 藤原京（ふじわらきょう） Ended in 794 Temporary move to 長岡京（ながおかきょう） in modern day 京都府(きょうとふ） in 784 Capital moved to 平安京（へいあんきょう） in 794, beginning the 平安時代 奈良時代 Politics Struggle for power between 藤原氏（ふじわらうじ） and others Characterized by familial infighting and disease induced deaths Beset by tragedies, Emperor Shomu turns to Buddhism, placing strain on peasants Construction of 大仏（だいぶつ） and 東大寺（とう だいじ） 奈良時代 Society and Economy Social structure based on Chinese system Not suited for Japan’s agricultural reality Vast majority of peasants in poverty Failure allowed for private land ownership Diplomacy Tension with Korea General harmony with China 奈良時代 Culture Major influence from China Proliferation of Buddhism Flowering of Japanese fine arts Literature Temple and treasure construction by foreign artisans 平安時代 Began in 794 Unfortunate events of 長岡京（ながおかきょう） Capital moved to 平安京（へいあんきょう）, modern day 京 都 Assassination, etc. To escape Buddhist influence in 奈良 Fear of spirits of assassinated Crown Prince Osabe Desire to be close to Ended in 1185 Defeat of 平氏（たいらうじ） establishing 鎌倉幕府（かまく らばくふ） 平安時代 Politics Phase 1: Attempts to revive 律令制度(りつりょう せいど） Hierarchy established based on Chinese system Purpose of bureaucracy was to control populace Universal taxation of peasants Phase 2: Political and financial problems Attempt to regulate private land ownership as solution Failure to control proliferation of land ownership 平安時代 Politics Phase 3: Firm establishment of 藤原摂関政治(ふ じわらせっかんしじ) (Fujiwara regency politics) Phase 4: Emperor not born of a 藤原 mother Successful use of private base of power not founded on Chinese style of administration 律令制度(りつりょうせいど） Nearly phased out by the end of the 平安時代 平安時代 Culture Buddhism flourished 天台宗（てんだいしゅう） Buddhism established at 延暦 寺(えんりゃくじ） on 比叡山(ひえいざん） 真言宗（しんごんしゅう）Buddhism founded by 空海(く うかい) at 高野山（こうやさん） in the 紀伊（きい） province, modern day 和歌山県(わかやまけん） Temple was believed to protect capital from evil spirits Popular with court officials Source of comfort Impetus for artistic development Establishment of new sects outside of capital allowed for separation 平安時代 Culture Pure Land Buddhism popular Warrior monks to defend private land ownership Disputes between temples Influence on nobility Art Move to wood sculpture form bronze Images of Amida Buddha became popular Lead to Pure Land Secular paintings of landscapes and court life 源氏物語絵巻（げんじものがたりえまき） 12th Century illustration of famous tale Important Works of the 奈良時代 古事記（こじき） ７１２ “Record of Ancient Matters” Compiled by 太安万侶（おおの やすまろ） Written in 変体漢文（へんたいかんぶん） Japan’s oldest extant chronicle Covers age of gods to the reign of Empress Suiko (593–628) 日本書紀（にほんしょき） ７２０ “Chronicle of Japan” Written in 漢文（かんぶん） Oldest official history of Japan Covers age of gods to the reign of Empress Jito (686–697) Important Works of the 奈良時代 万葉集（まんようしゅう） ca. ７７０ “Collection of Ten Thousand Leaves” Believed to be compiled primarily by大伴家持(お おとものやかもち） Earliest extant 和歌（わか） collection 4,516 total poems Written in 万葉仮名（まんようがな） Important Works of the 平安時代 竹取物語（たけとりものがたり） end of 9th century “The Tale of the Bamboo Cutter” Oldest known Japanese narrative Fable about the “Shining Princess” that was found in a stand of bamboo 古今和歌集（こきんわかしゅう） 905 “Collection of Japanese Poems from Ancient and Modern Times” Main compiler was 紀貫之（きのつれゆき） Wrote Japanese preface Collection of 1111 和歌(わか） poems More than 450 poems written anonymously Important Works of the 平安時代 伊勢物語（いせものがたり） early 10th century “Tales of Ise” Authorship unknown Collection of about 125 brief episodes Oldest example of 歌物語（うたものがたり） Possibly based on a collection by 在原業平（ありわらのなりひら） Short stories centered on one or more poems 土佐日記（とさにっき） circa 935 “The Tosa Diary” First significant work of 日記文学（にっきぶんがく） Written by 紀貫之（きのつれゆき） Written by a male posing as a woman Written in kana, the language of women Important Works of the 平安時代 宇津保物語（うつほものがたり） 967-984 “Tale of the Hollow Tree” Author is unknown Believed to be the worlds oldest still existing novel Shipwrecked on the way to China Taught to play 琴（こと） 落窪物語（おちくぼものがたり） late 10th century “The Tale of the Lady Ochikubo” Traditionally attributed to 源順（みなもとのしたがう） Authorship disputed Oldest fictional example on the “stepchild persecution” theme Important Works of the 平安時代 蜻蛉日記（かげろうにっき） 974 – 995 “The Gossamer Diary” Lament of an unhappy wife Likely influenced later works such as Genji 枕草子（まくらのそうし） 1000 – 1017 “The Pillow Book of Sei Shonagon” First example of 随筆(ずいひつ） Spur of the moment collection of thoughts Detailed description of events and customs of Heian court Important Works of the 平安時代 源氏物語（げんじものがたり） early 11th century “The Tale of Genji” Believed to have been written by 紫式部（むらさきしきぶ） World’s first ‘great novel’ Details life of the members of the Heian court 大鏡（おおかがみ） early 11th century “The Great Mirror” Author Unknown Language close to spoken language of the time Focuses on the lives of the Fujiwara from 850 to 1025 Important Works of the 平安時代 栄華物語（栄花物語） “A Tale of Flowering Fortunes” 40 Chapters total First 30 credited to 赤染衛門（あかぞめえもん） Last 10 to Idewa no Ben First history written in 仮名（かな） First example of 歴史物語（れきしものがたり） 更級日記（さらしなにっき） circa 1060 “As I Crossed a Bridge of Dreams” Anonymous Details the life of a Tales obsessed woman Important Works of the 平安時代 今昔物語集（こんじゃくものがたりしゅう） early 12th century “Tales of Times Now Past” Collection of more than 1,000 short tales Compiled by Minamoto no Takakuni in 宇治（うじ） Said to have been collected from passerby 方丈記（ほうじょうき） 1212 “An Account of My Hut” Written by鴨長明(かものちょうめい） Short example of 随筆(ずいひつ） The Six Inflected Forms of verbs, adjectives, adjectival verbs, and auxiliary verbs 未然形（みぜんけい）MZ - The MZ is the imperfective form (literally, “not-yet-realized” form), and generally signifies an action(s) that has not yet taken place. Depending upon what auxiliary verbs or particles follow it, the MZ can express many things: negation intention, conjecture, or desire hypothetical situation desire or request potential, passive, spontaneous, honorific, and causative The MZ is sometimes referred to as the negative form because the negative ず often follows the MZ form. The Six Inflected Forms cont. 連用形（れんようけい）RY - The RY is the continuative form and signifies that an action or process expressed by the verb is either taking place or has already taken place. Again, depending upon what follows it, the RY can indicate: ongoing action, action that has already taken place consecutive or simultaneous action prohibition, hypothetical concession nominalization The RY is also referred to as the conjunctive form. The Six Inflected Forms cont. 終止形（しゅうしけい）SS - The SS is the final form. It indicates the end of the sentence as well as current action [unless it also has a temporal marker, such as 昔（むかし）]. The SS can also express: speculation doubt/rhetorical questioning prohibition hypothetical concession. The Six Inflected Forms cont. 連体形（れんたいけい）RT - The RT is known as the attributive form, and it directly modifies a noun/pronoun, even an implied noun/pronoun. Depending upon what follows OR precedes it, the RT can also express: end of a sentence exclamation speculation nominalization The Six Inflected Forms cont. 已然形（いぜんけい）IZ - The IZ is the perfective (literally “already-realized”) form and expresses action that has already occurred. IZ can indicate: logical connection the resultative/continuative/perfective form concession emphasis 命令形（めいれいけい）MR - The MR form expresses a command. There are 9 verb conjugations: 5 are regular and 4 are irregular Regular conjugations 四段（よだん） Four-grade conjugation 上一段（かみいちだん） Upper one-grade conjugation 下一段（しもいちだん） Lower one-grade conjugation 上二段（かみにだん） Upper two grade conjugation 下二段（しもにだん） Lower two-grade conjugation Irregular conjugations カ行変格（かぎょうへんかく） k-row irregular conjugation サ行変格（さぎょうへんかく） s-row irregular conjugation ラ行変格（らぎょうへんかく） r-row irregular conjugation ナ行変格（なぎょうへんかく） n-row irregular conjugation 四段（よだん）verbs are the most common of the verb conjugations 思ふ（おもふ） 聞く（きく） MZ おもは MZ きか RY おもひ RY きき SS おもふ SS きく RT おもふ RT きく IZ おもへ IZ きけ MR おもへ MR きけ Adjectives and Adjectival Verbs ク活（かつよ）- usually expresses physical characteristics. 清し（きよし） ク カリ MZ 〇 きよから RY きよく SS シク活（かつよ）- usually expresses emotional characteristics. 楽し（たのし） シク シカリ MZ 〇 たのしから きよかり RY たのしく たのしかり きよし 〇 SS たのし 〇 RT きよき きよかる RT たのしき たのしかる IZ きよけれ 〇 IZ たのしけれ 〇 MR 〇 きよかれ MR 〇 たのしかれ クare usually forms used mostly with aux. Verbs while カリ are usually forms mainly used with adverbs, or in modifying a noun, etc. Negative Auxiliary Verb ず Always follows the MZ MZ （な） 〇 ざら RY （に） ず ざり SS 〇 ず 〇 RT ぬ 〇 ざる IZ ね 〇 ざれ MR 〇 〇 ざれ ず example sentences 京には見えぬ鳥なれば、みな人見知らず。（みやこには みえぬとりなればみなひとみしらず。） “Since it was a bird (tori) that does not appear (mie-nu) in the capital (miyako), no one (mina) recognized it (mi-shirazu). (Ise Monogatari, sec. 9, NKBT 9:117)” (65). 月なく、雪も降らず。（つきなく、ゆきもふらず。） “There is no (naku) moon (tsuki), and the snow (yuki) does not fall (fura-zu). (Sarashina Nikki, NKBT 20:515)” (24). 魚は水に飽かず。（いをはみずにあかず。） “As for fish (io), they never tire (aka-zu) of the water (mizu). (Houjouki, NKBT 30:43)” (65). Recollective Auxiliary Verbs き and けり Both follow the RY and are relate with the past tense or recollection き - personal past, recollection MZ RY SS RT IZ MR （せ） 〇 き し しか 〇 けり – hearsay past, exclamatory recognition, and direct, impersonal past MZ （けら） RY 〇 SS けり RT ける IZ けれ MR 〇 き and けり examples 京より下りし時に、みな人、子どもなかりき。（きやうよりくだりしとき に、みなひと、こどもなかりき。） “When we left (kudari-shi) the capital, no one had (nakari-ki) children (kodomo). (Tosa Nikki, NKBT 20:55)” (69). 鬼のやうなるもの出で来て殺さんとしき。（おにのやうなるものいできて ころさんとしき。） “Something (mono) that looked like (you naru) a demon (oni) came out (idekite) and tried to kill us (korosa-n to shi-ki). (Taketori Monogatari, NKBT 9:37)” (428). 行かずなりにけり。（いかずなりにけり。） “I ended up (nari-ni-keri) not going (ika-zu). (Ise Monogatari, sec. 23, NKBT 9:127)” (429). 今夜は十五夜なりけり。（こよひはじゅうごやなりけり。） “Tonight (koyoi) is the fifteenth night (juugoya nari-keri)! (Genji Monogatari, Suma, NKBT 15:41)” (430). Copula なり and たり なり- follows noun or the RT たり – follows nominals MZ なら MZ たら RY なり・に RY たり・と SS なり SS たり RT なる RT たる IZ なれ IZ たれ MR なれ MR たれ Perfective and Continuative Auxiliary Verbs Instead of tense, these aux. verbs have to do with aspect ぬ – follows the RY; nahen conjugation. Indicates the perfective, or certainty/emphasis MZ な つ – follows the RY; shimo-nidan conjugation. Indicates the perfective and certainty MZ て RY に RY て SS ぬ SS つ RT ぬる RT つる IZ ぬれ IZ つれ MR ね MR てよ Perfective and Continuative Auxiliary Verbs cont. たり- follows the RY; rahen conjugation. Indicates resultative, continuative/durative, perfective, parallel, future realization り- follows the IZ of yodan verbs and the MZ of sahen verbs; has a rahen conjugation. Indicates resulatative, continuative, and perfective MZ たら MZ ら RY たり RY り SS たり SS り RT たる RT る IZ たれ IZ れ MR たれ MR れ ぬ、つ、たり & り examples 舟こぞりて泣きにけり。（ふねこぞりてなきにけり。） “In the boat (fune) everyone at once (kozori-te) ended up weeping (naki-nikeri). (Ise Monogatari, sec. 9, NKBT 9:117)” (77). なよ竹のかぐや姫とつけつ。（なよたけのかぐやひめとつけつ。） “(He) ended up naming (to tsuke-tsu) her Shining Princess (Kaguyahime) of the Supple Bamboo (nayotake). (Taketori Monogatari, NKBT 9:30)” (79). 筒の中光りたり。（つつのなかひかりたり。） “It was shining (hikari-tari) in the middle (naka) of (bamboo) stalk. (Taketori Monogatari, NKBT 9:29)” (435). いと思ひの外なる人の言へれば、人々あやしがる。（いとおもひのほかな るひとのいへれば、ひとびとあやしがる。） “Since a very (ito) unexpected (omoi no hoka naru) person recited (ie-re-ba) (the poem), everyone (hitobito) thought it was strange (ayashigaru). (Tosa Nikki, NKBT 20:53)” (436). Rhetorical Techniques of Japanese Poetry: Nara period 枕詞（まくらことば）- literally means “pillow-word.” Generally five syllables in length, the makura-kotoba is a fixed expression that people used in poetry to elevate the tone and rhythm of the poem. Arose during the Nara period, and most of the original meanings of makura-kotoba are already lost. Ex. 久方のひかりのどけき春の日にしづ心なく花のちるらむ。（ひさかたのひかりのどけきはるの ひにしづごころなくはなのちるらむ。） “Why (ramu) do the cherry blossoms (hana) scatter (chiru) with unsettled hearts (shizu-gokoro naku) on a spring day (haru no hi) of gentle (nodokeki) light (hikari)? (Kokinwakashuu, no. 84, NKBT 8:120)” (364). The 久方の is the makura-kotoba, and while the original meaning has been lost, it generally means “from a distant (hisa) direction (kata),” and modifies words that are related to the sky and other celestial objects. 序詞（じょことば）- a poetic preface-phrase that began in the Nara period. Usually over seven syllables in length, the jokotoba modifies a particular word, and possesses unfixed wording and content, unlike the makurakotoba. It is generally “linked to the main body by a repetition of or a similarity in sound and often functions as a metaphor for or a description of the main body of the poem” (365). Ex. 葦引の山鳥の尾のしだり尾のながながし夜をひとりかも寝む。（あしひきのやまどりのおのし だりおのながながしよをひとりかもねむ。） “I will sleep (nemu) by myself (hitori) this long (naganagashi) night (yo), long as the (long) drooping tail (shidari-o) of the tail (o) of the copper pheasant (yamadori). (Hitomaro, Shuuishuu, Love 3, no. 778, SNKBT 7:226)” (366). “The entire underlined sentence is the jokotoba, which is linked to the main body by the adjective naganagashi, ‘long, long,’ which modifies both ‘night’ (yo) and the drooping tail (shidari-o) of the copper pheasant (yamadori…). Here, the jokotoba functions as a metaphor… for the main body of the poem” (366). Rhetorical Techniques of Japanese Poetry: Heian period 掛詞（かけことば）- a pivot word that arose in the Heian period; It is a pun that involves one word being used in two senses. Ex. あきののに人まつ虫の声すなり我かとゆきていざとぶらはん。（あきののにひとまつむ しのこえすなりわれかとゆきていざとぶらはん。） “I hear (nari) the voice (koe) of the pine cricket (matsu-mushi) waiting (matsu) for someone (hito) in the autumn (aki) field (no). Is it me (the matsu-mushi is waiting for)? Well (iza), let me go (yuki-te) and visit (toburawa-n). (Kokinwakashuu, Autumn 1, no. 202, NKBT 8:142)” (366). The pine cricket (matsu-mushi) is crying as if it is waiting (matsu) for someone to visit. 縁語（えんご）- coming into existence in the Heian period, engo are associated words. That is, words that “are not linked grammatically but are associated by meaning and by close cultural and poetic associations” (367). Engo give “deeper connotations and added interest” to the poem (367). Ex. 浅緑糸よりかけて白露を珠にもぬける春の柳か。（あさみどりいとよりかけてしらつゆ おたまにもぬけるはるのやなぎか。） “Twining (yorikakete) the light green (asa-midori) (branches) into threads (ito) and passing them (nuke-ru) through the white dew (shira-tsuyu) to make beads (tama) – the spring (haru) willow (yanagi)! (Kokinwakashuu, Spring 1, no. 27, NKBT 8:109)” (368). The speaker of this poem “treats the branches of the budding willow tree (yanagi) as light green threads (ito), which are passed through beads of white dew (shira tsuyu). The words yorikaku (to twist together) and nukeru (to pass through) are engo of the word ito (thread), adding a rich layer of associations that complement the images of willows and dew. What Is古代日本語? 古代日本語was the language as spoken and written during the Nara and Heian eras of Japan, circa 710–1185 CE. Nara Japan is characterized by an enormous influx of Chinese vocabulary and widespread changes in the phonology. Contrasts Between Old and Classical Whereas early old Japanese had 88 different possible syllables, the native vocabulary of classical had 66. Kana as a script emerged at the beginning of the Heian period, and fairly accurately reflects the contemporary system. Imported Chinese Words The first round of this linguistic import took place between the years 222-589AD. Buddhist terms were mainly chosen. The second round was between the years 618907AD. The terms used for administrative purposes were targeted. The third round occurred between the years 960-1279AD, when the Chinese developed about 33,000 hanzi at that time. The targeted terms were linked with Zen terminology. 上代 (じょうだい) 日本語 Shortly after the Kojiki, the distinction between mo1 and mo2 is quickly lost reducing the total syllable count to 87. Many hypotheses have been proposed to explain the syllable doublets, including: an eight-vowel system palatalization of the previous constant a six-vowel system *This issue is still strongly argued, and there is no general consensus. 中古 (ちゅうこ) 日本語 The change of the prenasalized consonants to voiced consonants. The addition of long vowels and closed syllables to syllable inventory. The elision of certain consonants in certain environments. The lenition of [p] to the bilabial fricative [Ф]. The change in timing from syllable-timing to moratiming. This table of 50 sounds is the historical kana system established in the Heian period a-vowel i-vowel u-vowel e-vowel o-vowel a-row あ い う え お k-row か s-row さ t-row た n-row な h-row は m-row ま y-row や r-row ら w-row わ ゐ う ゑ を Today, the two kana, ゐ (wi or i) and ゑ (we or e) are no longer used. Voiced sounds existed as early as the Nara period, but the voiced s-row じ and the t-row ぢ, as well as the s-row ず and the t-row づ, respectively, were pronounced differently from one another. In modern Japanese, however, such distinction in pronunciation is dropped. The nasalized ん also emerged during the Heian period. 万葉仮名 (まんようがな) Created in the 奈良時代 (ならじだい 710-794) Was the predecessor to ひらがな andカタカナ ひらがな was developed using the sosho, or grass style of writing. Modern Uses of Kobun れんぱならず – does not win two consecutive championships かはんすうにとどかず － does not reach the majority Aru and Suru The Shuushikei of ari, “to be,” became aru, which is what it is today in modern Japanese. The Rentaikei form of the verb su, suru, began to be used as the Shuushikei at the end of the Heian era, which is the same way it is used in modern times. The “na” adjective in modern Japanese derived from the Kobun adjectival verb “nari.” ex. し ずかなリ→しずかな The modern “行ったっけ” which means ”Did I go there?” comes from the classical combination たりける Uses of Kobun today Modern Tanka (31 syllable equivilent of classical Waka) Modern Haiku Literature Classical Japanese fell into decline during the Meiji restoration. However, it was still used in many official documents. Vocabulary Modern Japanese Word Classical Japanese Word Meaning a, ano ka, kano That (Over there) sore sa That aruku ariku To walk muzukashii katashi Difficult tegami fumi Document Word Vocabulary Issues tameshi Sunawachi utsukushi mezamashi ashita mutsukashi Classical Meaning Modern Meaning Example Soon/ Immediately Test/Attempt Beloved/ Attractive Amazing/ Interesting Morning Unpleasant, Eerie nonoshiru To shout/Call ari To be “In other words…” Beautiful Waking-up Tomorrow Difficult To revile To be(Things only). Vocabulary Classical Japanese Meaning yamugotonashi exalted; unable to be ignored ito Very ikade In what manner? saranari Of course atenari First Rate imiji Great/Impressive kokoroushi Difficult ashi Evil/Wrong Itsuku Revere/Worship Disappearance of Conjugation Types Classical Japanese Conjugations Modern Japanese Conjugations Yodan Nahen Rahen Shimo-Ichidan Godan Kami-Ichidan Kami-Nidan Kami-Ichidan Shimo-Nidan Shimo-Ichidan Sahen Sahen Kahen Kahen Works Referenced “Heian Literature.” The Kodansha Encyclopedia of Japan. <http://www.ency-japan.com> “Heian Period.” The Kodansha Encyclopedia of Japan. <http://www.ency-japan.com> “Heian Period.” Wikipedia. <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heian_period> “Late Old Japanese.” Wikipedia. <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Old_Japanese> Works Referenced “Nara Period.” The Kodansha Encyclopedia of Japan. <http://www.ency-japan.com> “Nara Period.” Wikipedia. <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nara_Period> Oshima, David Y. JPN494/598 History of the Japanese Language. <http://www.public.asu.edu/~dyoshima/494-598.htm> “Old Japanese.” Wikipedia. <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Old_Japanese> Works Referenced “Ritsuryo System.” The Kodansha Encyclopedia of Japan. <http://www.ency-japan.com> Shirane, Haruo. Classical Japanese. New York: Columbia University Press, 2005. Tsujimura, Natsuko. Japanese Linguistics. Malden, Massachusetts: Blackwell Publishing, 1996. 山口 仲美 (2006) 『日本語の歴史』 岩波書店.