Transcript Science Study Notes 2010

By Andrew Newbound
© Andrew Newbound 2013
Unit 1
© Andrew Newbound 2013
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Galaxies
◦ Group of stars and planets
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Tectonics
◦ Plate movements
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Radioactive
◦ An element which gives off radiation
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Subduction
◦ A location where a layer sinks into hot magma
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Geological
◦ The study of rocks
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Era
◦ A group of periods
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Strata
◦ Layers of rock
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Seismic
◦ The force given off by earthquakes
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Precambrian
◦ A period in geological time
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Period
◦ A length of time
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Half-life
◦ The time taken for an element to have half of its
radioactivity
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Volcano
◦ A location where magma comes out of a mountain
like structure
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Stratigraphy
◦ The study of determining the age of rocks
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Trilobite
◦ An exoskeleton-ed creature from the Cambrian
period
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Fossil
◦ The remains of an ancient creature
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Convection
◦ Heat cycle in a liquid or gas
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Determine age of earth
Material accumulates in layers
Cross section – stratigraphical column
Law of Superposition
◦ Oldest = bottom
◦ Youngest = top
◦ Except when disturbed
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Each layer identified by looks, texture etc.
Rocks of certain type = same (no matter
what)
Sedimentary rocks – form by deposition
Different strategraphic columns correlated
◦ Information on how environment changed
◦ Relate types of rock to type of environment present
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Coal
Mudstones
Mudstones with
sandstones
Sandstones
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Swamp
Lagoon
Tidal
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Shallow marine
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Artefacts may be found in rock strata
Fossils in 1 layer = 1 age
Many fossils distinct to time period
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Animal dies
Body eaten by decomposers
Hard parts left behind
Become fossil if not decomposed
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Found in sedimentary rock
Layers of sediments
Found when rocks break away
Changed into rock (sediments)
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Heat & pressure over period of time
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Lithification
Minerals seep in – change composition
Fossils dissolved – minerals fill gaps
Fossils – similar to sediments
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Petrified = turned to stone
Silica, apatite, calcite common
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Animal droppings, wood
◦ Don’t smell
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Soft parts fossilised
◦ Sometimes only outlines
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Valuable
◦ Zircon – don’t decompose
◦ Copies – plaster
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Animal dies in swamp
Remains buried
Layers build up
Chemicals seep in
Surrounding sediments = sedimentary rocks
Layers pushed upwards
Weathering exposes fossils
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Meteors/Asteroids
◦ Rare metal found in asteroids
◦ Melted rock from asteroid
◦ Fractured crystals = high energy
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Volcanoes
◦ Rare metal = large scale volcanic activity
◦ Fractured crystals = high energy
◦ Fossil record = gradual decline
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Competing with mammals
◦ Fossil record – lots of mammal fossils after
dinosaur extinction
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Cooling climate
◦ Fossil record – gradual decline
◦ Sea level – dryer continents
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Volcano
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Lava dating to period
500,000 + years leading up to extinction
Stopped sunlight
Temp fell
Plants stopped producing
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Impact crater near Yucatan peninsula
10km wide asteroid
30km per second
Melted granite (common at time of dinosaur
extinction)
Asteroid
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Both
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Left rare metals
Powerful force
Sudden catastrophe
End of Cretaceous/Tertiary period
Fossil records
Fractured crystals
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Time divided into periods
◦ Special fossils associated with
◦ Dated exactly (in millions of years)
 Radioactive dating
◦ Used to explain age of fossil
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End of period
◦ Large number of extinctions
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Geological time scale
◦ Shows names, order of periods, absolute age
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Alfred Wegener (1915)
◦ Theory on continental drift
◦ Coined term Continental Drift (now Plate Tectonics)
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Continents once joined
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Shape of continents
Eroded mountain ranges
Deposits of minerals
Patterns by glaciers
Similar fossils & closely related living species
Ancient coral reefs in cold climates
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Continents once joined together
Pangaea
◦ Original land mass
◦ Everything joined together
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200 million years ago
◦ 2 super continents
◦ Laurasia & Gondwana
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Laurasia
◦ Northern Hemisphere
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North America
Greenland
Europe
Asia
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Gondwanaland
◦ Southern Hemisphere
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South America
Africa
India
Antarctica
Australia
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Lithosphere – upper layer
Asthenosphere – lower layer
Earth’s crust not a single piece
About 30 plates
◦ Move a few centimetres per year
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More evidence of continental drift
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Earth’s crust & upper mantle broken into
moving plates of mantle
Lithosphere plates = solid rock
Several very large plates (both continental,
oceanic portions)
12 + smaller plates
Average = 80km in thickness
All plates = moving
Slide on asthenosphere
◦ A little magma
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Plates move – convection, gravity
Subduction zones – 1 plate sinks into mantle
◦ Rest of plate is dragged in
◦ Like pushing paper off table
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Convection currents – in Lithosphere
◦ Heat deeper – mantle made to circulate
 Contains a little magma
 Behaves like hot mush
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Marked by earthquakes, volcanoes, mountain
ranges
◦ Caused by qualities of plate boundaries
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Volcanoes
◦ Magma coming between plates
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Mountain ranges
◦ Created by plates converging
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Oceanic plate = thin
Continental plate = thick
Plates moving 2-10cm per year
Diverging
◦ Lava fills gap
◦ Mid-Ocean Ridge
 Only ridge above sea level = Iceland
 1975-1981 = widened by 5m
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Transform
◦ Get stuck = earthquake
◦ E.g. San Andreas fault in California
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Converging
◦ Oceanic meets continental = oceanic subducted
 Molten rock rises as volcano
 Subduction zone
◦ OR Continent meets continent = fold mountains
produced
 E.g. Indian/Asian
 Marine sediments squashed, crinkled, sediments pushed
upwards
 Still moving = earthquakes
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Form at subduction zones
◦ E.g. ring of fire
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Found in middle of plate – hot spot
◦ Heated spot in mantle
© Andrew Newbound 2013
Unit 2
© Andrew Newbound 2013
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Element
◦ Chlorine
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Mixture
◦ Citric acid
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Compound
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Sodium chloride
Ammonia
Natural gas
Mentholated spirits
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Reactants recombine to form product
Reactants  Products
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Law of conservation
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◦  means reacts
◦ Mass of reactants = mass of products
◦ No matter created/destroyed
 Atoms rearranged
◦ Our matter around at time of dinosaurs
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Chemical reaction
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Change of colour
Change of temperature
Gas given off
Odour
Solid produced
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Salt – combination of a metal & non-metal
E.g. NaCl (table salt)
= metal (sodium) + non-metal (chlorine)
Acid + metal
 Salt + Hydrogen
Acid + carbonate
 salt + Carbon Dioxide + water
Acid + base
 salt + water
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Ion
◦ Charged molecule
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Tell if acid/base = use indicator
Acid
◦ Compound contains hydrogen compounds which
detach when dissolved to form H+ ions
◦ Taste sour, are corrosive
Name
Formula
Ion when
dissolved
Hydrochloric
HCl
H+ + Cl-
Sulphuric
H2SO4
2H+ + SO42-
Nitric
HNO3
H+ + NO3-
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Base
◦ Compound contains OH- ion which detaches when
dissolved
◦ Alkali
◦ Strip fats out of skin – caustic
◦ Used for soup
◦ Bitter
Name
Formula
Ion when
dissolved
Sodium
hydroxide
NaOH
Na+ + OH-
Potassium
hydroxide
KOH
K+ + OH-
Calcium
hydroxide
Ca(OH)2
Ca2+ + 2OH-
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Acid + base neutralise to form water + salt
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Power/concentration of hydrogen
O-14
Neutral = 7
Measuring with pH meter
Use universal indicator
◦ Mixture of indicators
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Small change in pH = large change in
concentration
◦ Body sensitive to changes
 pH of medical = body pH
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Compound of metal & non-metal
In neutralisation reaction
◦ metal from base
◦ non-metal from acid
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Bases
Acids
Base name
Formula
Type of salt
Formula
Sodium hydroxide
NaOH
Sodium
Na
Potassium hydroxide
KOH
Potassium
K
Magnesium hydroxide
Mg(OH)2
Magnesium
Mg
Calcium hydroxide
Ca(OH)2
Calcium
Ca
Ammonium hydroxide
H4OH
Ammonium
NH4
Acid name
Formula
Type of salt Formula
Hydrochloric acid
HCl
Chloride
Cl
Sulfuric acid
H2SO4
Sulfate
SO4
Nitric acid
HNO3
Nitrate
NO3
Phosphoric acid
H3PO4
Phosphate
PO4
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Acids and bases used in topic dissolved in
water
Water + substance dissolved in it = solution
Water = solvent
Dissolved substance = solute
Solution – no more solute can be dissolved
◦ Saturated
◦ Heat & super saturate
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Common solvent
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Water
Acetone
Methylated spirits
Turpentine
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Nail polish
◦ Non soluble in water
◦ Soluble in acetone
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Solvents evaporate
at different rates
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In past
◦ Combustion = mystery
◦ Substance burnt = smaller in size
◦ All substances that combusted contained phlogiston
 Released during burning process
◦ Disproved – burning makes heavier
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Now – use oxygen theory
Combustion needs:
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Products of combustion
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◦ Combustible material
◦ Oxygen
◦ Ignition temp to be reached
◦ Water
◦ Carbon dioxide
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Oxygen + Combustible material
 Water + Carbon dioxide
Not enough oxygen = incomplete
combustion
◦ Products = carbon and/or carbon monoxide
◦ E.g.
 Cars – black smoke
 Safety Bunsen flame
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Reaction of metals, in which they dissolve
away
Only metals not corrode = gold, platinum
Iron corrodes – rusting, turning reddish
orange
Copper turns aqua-green (turquoise)
Stop corrosion
◦ Prevent water/oxygen reaching metal
 Oil, paint, plastic, air conditioning (e.g. museum)
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Metal
Water
Oxygen
Corrosion
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Chemical process - compound is broken
down
E.g.
CuCO3
 CuO + Co2
2H2O
 2H2 + O2
Requires energy
◦ Usually heat
◦ Sometimes electricity
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Metal = 1st (from base)
Non-metal = 2nd (from acid)
Hydrochloric acid + sodium hydroxide
 Sodium chloride + water
Hydrochloric acid + potassium hydroxide
 potassium chloride
Sulfuric acid (H2SO4)  Sulfate
Nitric acid (HNO3)  nitrate
Hydrochloric acid (HCl)  chloride
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Carbonate
◦ Compound containing carbon & oxygen
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Neutralisation
◦ Acids and bases crossing each other out to produce
a salt and water
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Reactant
◦ Starting compounds of a chemical reaction
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Equations
◦ A method of writing a chemical formula in a
mathematical format
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Combustion
◦ Where a combustible material reacts with oxygen to
form carbon dioxide and water
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Decomposition
◦ The chemical process where a substance is broken
down
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Corrosion
◦ Reaction of metals in which it reacts with water and
oxygen to produce an oxide
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Metal
◦ A group of elements which share similar properties
◦ E.g. Shiny, conductive
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Product
◦ The end compounds of a chemical reaction
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Acid
◦ pH <7, H+ ion disassociates with in water
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Bases
◦ pH >7, OH- ion disassociates with in water
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Indicator
◦ A substances that changes colour in acids and
bases
© Andrew Newbound 2013
Unit 3
© Andrew Newbound 2013
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Biosphere
◦ All the plants and animals on earth
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Magnification
◦ Poisons accumulating up the food chain
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Carbon
◦ An element of the periodic table
◦ Essential for life
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Abiotic
◦ Non living parts of the environment
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Insecticides
◦ Poison that kills insects
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Ecosystem
◦ Interactions of living things
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Nitrogen
◦ An element of the periodic table
◦ Essential for life
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Conservation
◦ Preserving the environment
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Atmosphere
◦ All the gases in the environment
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Oxygen
◦ An element of the periodic table
◦ Essential for life
◦ A waste of photosynthesis
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Environment
◦ Everything surrounding a living thing
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Pollution
◦ Waste products of another living organism in the
environment
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Hydrosphere
◦ All of the water in the world
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Biotic
◦ All of the living things
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Renewable
◦ Able to be reused
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Greenhouse
◦ Layer of gases surrounding the earth to keep in gases,
thus heating the earth
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Environment
◦ All the things surrounding an organism which affect
it in its life
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Habitat
◦ Where an organism lives
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Study of Earth as life support system
Study of living things in the environment
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Animal behaviour
Taxonomy
Physiology
Maths-population
studies
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Abiotic (non-living)
Climatology
Hydrology
Oceanography
Physics
Chemistry
Geology
Soil analysis
Biotic (Living)
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Competitors
Disease
Predators
Food
Mates
Population sizes
Shelter
Nesting sites
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Biotic
pH
Oxygen levels
Carbon dioxide levels
Altitude
Light availability
Type of soil
Water availability
Shelter
Topography
Minerals
Available space
Abiotic
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Teachers
Students
Trees
Fish
Illness
Soil
Grass
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Biotic (living)
Desks
Chairs
Shelter
Glass
Paper
Weather
Bins
Chemicals
Carpet
Abiotic (non-living)
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Biosphere
Atmosphere
Hydrosphere
Lithosphere
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Gaseous envelope surrounding Earth to
500km
Minor constituents are very important
◦ Greenhouse gases
◦ Ozone shield
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Composition changing overtime
◦ Still changing
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Other
Oxygen
1%
Gases
21%
Nitrogen
78%
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Includes all liquid and solid water above &
below ground
Physical & chemical properties
◦ Important for life
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Glacial Ice
2%
Water Locations
Other
1%
Oceans
97%
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Dynamic outer portion of the solid Earth
Extends to about 100km
Includes crust and uppermost part of mantle
Source of earthquakes & volcanoes
Comprised of tectonic plates
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Organisms & their environments
Includes living and dead organic matter
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Constant movement of water from
atmosphere
◦ From atmosphere to surface of the earth and back
again
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Some water temporarily stored in ground
◦ Until drains
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Returns to atmosphere through
◦ Evaporation
◦ Plant transpiration
◦ Animal respiration
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Ice
Snow
Oceans
Seas
Lakes
Rivers
Streams
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Rain
Hail
Frost
Snow
Dew
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Oxygen
(Photosynthesis)
Animal
Plant
Carbon dioxide
(Respiration)
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sun
Water + carbon dioxide  glucose + oxygen
6H2O + 6CO2
 C6H12O6 + 6O2
Takes place in leaves
Needs water + carbon dioxide
◦ As well as sunlight and a plant
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Carbon dioxide
◦ Comes from animals
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Makes glucose + oxygen
Glucose = plant’s food
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Oxygen = waste gas
◦ Used by animals
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Way animals obtain energy
◦ Eat plants, other animals
◦ Get energy out of food through respiration
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Oxygen gas (O2)is needed
Waste products
◦ Carbon dioxide (CO2)
◦ Water (H2O)
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Glucose + oxygen  carbon dioxide + water
C6H12O6 + 6O2
 6CO2 + 6H2O
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Plants to
•Animals
•Respiration
(digestion)
•Soil
•Death, decay
•Air/water
Animals to
•Air/water
•Respiration
•Fossil fuels
•Burning
•Soil
•Death, decay
•Burning
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Fossil Fuels to
•Air/water
•Burning
Air/water to
•Plants
Soil to
•Fossil fuels
•Photosynthesis
•Heat/pressure
•Air/water
•Bacteria
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Carbon in Plants
Carbon in animals
Carbon in the soil
Carbon in fossil fuels
Carbon dioxide
in air/water
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Key component in many molecules
◦ Form basic building blocks of life
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In
◦ Mainly in atmosphere (N2)
 79% of air we breath
 Cannot directly use
◦ Living organisms
◦ Soil
◦ Oceans
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Responsible for DNA, RNA
◦ Molecules responsible for genetic code of life
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Plants & animals need it to be converted to
use
◦ Ammonia (NH4-)
◦ Nitrate (NO3-)
◦ Urea ((NH3)2CO)
 In urine
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Animals consume through
◦ Living/dead matter
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Conversion of Nitrogen Gas into
Ammonia/Nitrate
Nitrogen made available to plants
Nitrogen fixing bacteria
◦ Pluck non-reactive nitrogen gas from atmosphere
◦ Combine it with hydrogen to form ammonia
◦ Only use nitrogen they require to live
 Rest is for plants when bacteria die
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Also fixed by
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Combustion
Volcanic activity
Lightning discharges
Commercial fertilizer production
Intense heat breaks 2 nitrogen atoms apart
 Nitrogens combines with oxygen to form nitrate
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Conversion of ammonia into nitrate
Soil bacteria
◦ Combine oxygen with ammonia
◦ Form nitrate (NO3-)
 Negatively charged nitrates can’t bind to clay particles
 Easily leached from the soil into the groundwater
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Plant uptake and use
Plants
◦ Draw ammonia + nitrate from soil
◦ Must convert nitrate into ammonia to use
 Done through assmilation
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Conversion of Organic Nitrogen into
Ammonia
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Nitrogen contained in urine & faeces
◦ Much in form of urea
 Quickly reacts with other compounds in atmosphere
 Form ammonia
 Bacteria & fungi continue to break it down into
ammonia
1. Organisms die
2. Decomposers break down
 Process significant amount of nitrogen from dead organism
 Converted to ammonia
 Plants use for growth, repair
 In high demand
 Quickly depleted in soil
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Reduction of Nitrate into Nitrate Gas
Environment doesn’t have enough oxygen
OR too many nitrates
◦ Denitrifying bacteria reduce nitrates back into
nitrate gas
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Too much manure
◦ Stuffs up nitrogen throughout the ecosystem
◦ Can leach into groundwater
◦ Can runoff into lakes & steams
 Cause eutrophication
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Eutrophication
◦ Additional nutrients in lakes
◦ Huge amounts of algae grow
◦ Algae blooms on surface of affected lakes &
streams
 Mats of thick green slime
 Block sunlight for plants in lakes
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Algae consumed excess nitrogen compounds
in water
◦ Die
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Bacteria break down dead algae
◦ Large quantities of dissolved oxygen
 Lake becomes hypoxic/oxygen-poor
 Oxygen-requiring organisms suffocate
 Aquatic insects & fish
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Nitrogen in air
Nitrate in
plant
decay
Animal wastes
Water nitrates
Bacteria in soil
produces nitrates
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Interact with Earth’s spheres
Litho
Hydro
Event
Atmo
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Bio
Lava
Ash into
atmosphere
Death to plants
and animals
Fertile soils
Explosions
Tsunami
Landslide
Forest fires
New land
Movement of
earth
heat
© Andrew Newbound 2013
Hydrosphere
•More debris into
waterways
•Pollutants
Atmosphere
•Gases/ash into
atmosphere
Biosphere
•Death
•Inhalation of
gas/ash
•More nutrients
•Pollutant
•Destroys crops
© Andrew Newbound 2013
Lithosphere
•Rearrangement
of mantle
•New material
Hydrosphere
Atmosphere
• Displacement
of water
• Gas chamber
opens
Biosphere
• Loss of life
• Environmental
disruption
© Andrew Newbound 2013
Lithosphere
• Movement of
earth’s plates
• New land
formed
Hydrosphere
Atmosphere
Biosphere
• Pollutants in
waterway
• Pollutants in
atmosphere
• Disrupting
respiration
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Lithosphere
• Displacement
of soil
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Movement of plates
Destroying cities
◦ Killing many
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Movement of dust
Not seeing
© Andrew Newbound 2013


Animals/plants that have gone wild
Feral cats
◦ Offspring of house cats
◦ Living wild in bush

Unwanted plants = weeds
◦ Huge problems on
 Farms
 Forests
 Public land

Foxes & dingoes poisoned
◦ No predators for kangaroos
 Population increases to plague proportions
© Andrew Newbound 2013

Animals that have gone wild
◦ Often started as domestic animals
 Released/escaped


Cause damage to environment
Controls
◦ Biological
◦ Chemical
– introducing other animals
- poisons
© Andrew Newbound 2013
Animal
Impact on Environment
Control methods
Goat
-Introduce weeds
-Compete for resources
-Footrot & other diseases
-Soil damage
-Culling
-Young females sold as breeding
stock
-Shooting from helicopters
Camels
-Drink all water
-Eat native plants
-Shoot them
-Harvesting/culling
-Fencing
-Live in them
Fox
-Kills animals
-Economic loss
-Rabies
-Fences
-Poison baits
-Prevention of introduced weeds
-Kill
-Don’t introduce them to new
places
© Andrew Newbound 2013
Animal
Impact on Environment
Control Methods
Cat
-Kills native birds
-Traps
-Poison baits
-Fencing
Water Buffalo
-Wreck soil
-Shoot them
-Eat all food
-Shoot them again
-Dung causes soil erosion
Rabbits
-Compete with native
animals
-Destroy vegetables
-Destroying the places they
live
-tapping
-Fencing
-Shooting
-Poisoning
© Andrew Newbound 2013
Animal
Impact on Environment
Control Methods
Pigs
-Destroy vegetation
-Compete with wildlife
-Destroy breeding sites
-Carries diseases
-Shooting
-Poison
-Bait
-Food
Horses
-Loss of native plants
-Soil loss
-Spread weeds
-Compete for food
-Economic loss
-Shoot them (culling)
-Baits
-Traps
© Andrew Newbound 2013

Pesticides are placed on produces
◦ Can lead to problems
1. Primary consumers eat problems
2. Secondary consumers eat them
 Concentration increases

E.g. DDT Sprayed on plants
◦ Builds up down food chain
◦ Birds have very high concentration
 Causes shells to break
 No more baby birds 

Is a bad thing
© Andrew Newbound 2013
Hawk
Weasels
Mouse
Cricket
Wheat
© Andrew Newbound 2013

E.g. Mercury in Fish
◦ Little fish absorb mercury
◦ Bigger fish eat little fish
◦ We eat big fish
 Concentration of mercury is high
 E.g. In tuna
© Andrew Newbound 2013


Australia has bad salinity problem
Salt deep down brought closer to surface
◦ Farming and erosion



Bad for plant growth
Salt at surface cannot be returned
Plants move water by capillary action
© Andrew Newbound 2013
Farming
Erosion
© Andrew Newbound 2013
Unit 4
© Andrew Newbound 2013

Turn on electricity
◦ Some electrons shuffle from 1 electron to the next
 Quick in metals

Conductors
◦ E.g. Metal

Insulators
◦ E.g. rubber & plastic

Circuit
◦ Like a pipe/tube of wires
© Andrew Newbound 2013
© Andrew Newbound 2013
Insulators and Conductors
Battery of galvanic cell
© Andrew Newbound 2013

Thicker wires = higher electricity
◦ Dangerous with thinner insulation

Semiconductor
◦ Properties between insulators and conductors
◦ Can be changed by heat/light
© Andrew Newbound 2013

Leclanché cells
◦ Zinc case which slowly dissolves
 Releases electrons
 Move through wire, produce current

Button cells
◦ Use zinc + mercury/silver

Fuel cells
◦ Make electric current
 Controlled reaction between a fuel & oxygen
© Andrew Newbound 2013

Lead-acid batteries in cars & trucks
◦ Don’t make electricity
◦ Store chemicals which release electrons in chemical
reactions
◦ Accumulator
 Proper name
 Storage battery

Solar panels
◦
◦
◦
◦
Consist of solar cells
Made of thin slices of silicon
Also called photovoltaic cells
Convert sunlight energy to electrical energy
© Andrew Newbound 2013
© Andrew Newbound 2013

Electrochemical cells
◦ Produce electricity by chemical reactions

Wet cell
◦ Zinc + copper dipped in SALT WATER

Dry cell
◦ Contains NO FREE LIQUID
© Andrew Newbound 2013

Atoms
◦ Everything has
◦ Have nucleus
 Orbited by electrons

Flow of electrons from one atom to another
◦ Always in wire
 Turn switch on
 Turns on immediately
◦ Electrical energy in electrons is converted to
 Heat energy
 Light energy
 Kinetic energy
© Andrew Newbound 2013

Electricity travels through wires
◦ Makes an electric current
Series Circuit
Parallel Circuit
© Andrew Newbound 2013


Used by scientists to draw circuits
Straight lines
◦ Wires = easier to follow

Universal symbols
◦ Easier to read
© Andrew Newbound 2013





Single battery
(power pack)
Wire
Light bulb
Ammeter
Voltmeter
© Andrew Newbound 2013





Double cell
(2 batteries)
Triple cell
(3 batteries)
Open switch
Joined wires
Resistor
© Andrew Newbound 2013


Controlled break in circuit
Break in circuit
◦ Electricity stops flowing

Series circuit
◦ 1 bulb broken = no lights on

Parallel circuit
◦ 1 bulb broken = most on
© Andrew Newbound 2013

Used to turn lights on and off at different
spots
On
Off
On
Off
© Andrew Newbound 2013

Measure in amperes (amps)
◦ Symbol = A
◦ E.g. 5 A = 5 amps


Measure of number of electrons that flow in
given time
Measured using ammeter
© Andrew Newbound 2013
Electrons only have 1 path to follow
∴ Current is the same at all ammeters
© Andrew Newbound 2013
Electrons only have 2 paths to follow
∴ Current less than total through each light
© Andrew Newbound 2013



Energy before use minus energy after use
Symbol = V
Tells how much energy has been used
© Andrew Newbound 2013


How easy it is for electricity to flow through a
conductor
Thin wires greater resistance than thick wires
◦ Less atoms for electrons to flow through


Measured in Ohms
Symbol = Ω
© Andrew Newbound 2013
𝑉
𝑅=
𝐼
© Andrew Newbound 2013



Voltage increases
= current increases
= resistance increases
Resistance increases
= current decreases
= voltage increases
Current increases
= voltage increases
= resistance decreases
© Andrew Newbound 2013

Voltage (potential difference)
◦ Pushes electrons

Current
◦ How fast electrons are moving



Ammeter
Voltmeter
Multimeter
– measures amps
– measures volts
– measures amps and volts
© Andrew Newbound 2013



Switch
= dam in river
Current
= how fast water flows
Potential difference = difference between
speed of water
© Andrew Newbound 2013



Used to produce heat & light
Called a filament
Used in
◦
◦
◦
◦

Light bulb
Oven
Heater
Toaster etc.
Thermal effect
◦ Electrons produce heat
 They are moving but have nowhere to go
© Andrew Newbound 2013

Electrons returning to start having done no
work
© Andrew Newbound 2013

Watt
◦ Rate energy is used by an electric device
 Converted from electrical energy to another form




1 watt = 1 joule per second
Kilowatt (kWh) = 1000 watts
Kilowatt-hour
Determine amount of power used
◦ Multiply kilowatts by amount of hours
© Andrew Newbound 2013
𝑃 = 𝐼𝑉
© Andrew Newbound 2013
𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑠
× ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑠
1000
© Andrew Newbound 2013


Work out current a machine normally needs
Choose smallest fuse value that will
comfortably do the job
© Andrew Newbound 2013
𝑃
𝐼=
𝑉
© Andrew Newbound 2013

Located in
◦
◦
◦
◦
Iron
Cobalt
Nickel
But facing different dirrection
© Andrew Newbound 2013
Stroke with
magnet
Electricity
Heating and
tapping
© Andrew Newbound 2013



Electricity aligns domains
Can be turned on and off
E.g.
◦ Compass
 changes direction around electricity
◦ Wire around nail
 Is magnet
© Andrew Newbound 2013



Speakers
Microphones
Security system
1. Button turns on electromagnet
2. Pulls steel latch from door

Electric bell
◦ Makes and breaks ringing
© Andrew Newbound 2013

Circuit breaker
◦ Will turn off when a certain amount of magnetism is
reached
◦ Does not turn itself back on
 Must be reset manually

Solenoids
◦ Coils of wires that produce electromagnetism
◦ Used to detect electric current
 Used in ammeters
 Coil of wire attracts and repels needle
© Andrew Newbound 2013
Unit 5
© Andrew Newbound 2013

Aristotle
◦ Though earth was centre of universe
◦ Geocentric

Copernicus
◦ Though solar system revolved around sun
◦ Heliocentric

Tycho Brahe
◦ Couldn’t prove earth moved
© Andrew Newbound 2013

Kepler
◦ Proved that planets moved in elliptical orbit
 Law of areas
◦ Built on Brahe’s work

Kepler’s Laws
1. Sun at centre – planets move in elliptical orbit
2. Planets move faster the closer to the sun
3. Planets that are further out move slower
© Andrew Newbound 2013
Geocentric
(Aristotle)
Heliocentric
(Copernicus)
© Andrew Newbound 2013
Brahe’s Model
Kepler’s Model
© Andrew Newbound 2013

Galileo
◦ Used a telescope
◦ Discovered there were stars in the milky way
 Not just glowing dust
◦ Discovered moon was not perfect sphere
 Had craters
◦ Discovered other centres of the universe
 Jupiter had moons
◦ Law of inertia
 If you set something in motion it will continue in that
motion if nothing influences it
© Andrew Newbound 2013

Newton
◦ Discovered gravity
 Combined with inertia to describe how planets moved
◦ Believed gravity was between every particle and
every other particle
© Andrew Newbound 2013
Object
Wave Type
Radio
Radio waves
Mobile
Microwave
TV
TV waves
Remote
Infra-red
Microwaves
Microwaves
X-Rays
X-Rays
UV Lamp
U V rays
Sun/sunscreen
UV rays
Radiotherapy for cancer
Gamma rays
© Andrew Newbound 2013



All have electromagnet energy
Travels in waves
Does not need a medium to pass through
© Andrew Newbound 2013
λ
© Andrew Newbound 2013

Wavelength
◦ Distance of 1 wave
◦ Measured from one point on wave to corresponding
point (E.g. from crest to crest)
◦ How long it is

Amplitude
◦ Distance up or down from middle

Frequency
◦ How frequent the waves are
◦ How many waves travel in a second
◦ Measured in hertz (Hz)
© Andrew Newbound 2013



Inverse relationship between wavelength and
energy
Smaller the wavelength, the more energy
The larger the wavelength, the less energy
© Andrew Newbound 2013


Or natural or visible light
Made up of different colours
Violet




Blue
Green
Yellow
Orange
Red
Small wavelength
Long wavelength
Large energy
Small energy
Each colour has own wavelength
Part of electromagnetic spectrum
◦ Part we can see
© Andrew Newbound 2013

Ultraviolet
◦ Beyond violet

Infrared
◦ Below red
© Andrew Newbound 2013
© Andrew Newbound 2013

Most comes from radiation
◦ From objects that are extremely hot

Iron at 100°C radiates heat at 0.03 watts per
cm2
◦ Small but measurable
◦ Cannot see as is infrared

In a fire
◦ A lot more energy is radiated
 Some as visible light
© Andrew Newbound 2013

Ways can be produced
◦
◦
◦
◦

Heat
Electricity
Sun
Solar wind
Light meets another object
◦ Reflection – bounces back
◦ Refraction – goes through at angle
◦ Transparent – straight through
© Andrew Newbound 2013

Through transparent material
◦ Vibrates particles in material
◦ Creates new photons
◦ Slows down

Sunlight consists of
◦ Colours of rainbow
© Andrew Newbound 2013

Radio waves
◦ Longest wavelength on spectrum
◦ Carry news, ball games and music on the radio
◦ Carry TV and phone signals

Microwaves
◦ Shorter than radio waves
◦ Heat food we eat
◦ Used for radar images
 Like Doppler radar used in weather forcases
© Andrew Newbound 2013

Infrared
◦ Longer wavelengths
 Detected as heat
 Given off by radiator/heater
 Thermal infrared
◦ Shorter wavelengths
 Given off by sun
 Plants reflect
 Near infrared waves
© Andrew Newbound 2013


Visible light
◦
◦
◦
◦
◦
◦
Can see
Colours of rainbow
Each colour has different wavelength
Red = longest wavelength
Violet = shortest wavelength
Combine to make white light
◦
◦
◦
◦
Shorter than visible light waves
Invisible to human eyes
Some insects see them
Responsible for sunburns
Ultraviolet
© Andrew Newbound 2013

X-Rays
◦ More energy than ultraviolet waves
◦ Can pass through skin
 Let doctors see bones

Gamma Rays
◦ Most amount of energy
◦ Generated by radioactive atoms
+ nuclear explosions
◦ Can kill living cells
 Used in cancer treatment
© Andrew Newbound 2013

Most of time spent on studying
electromagnetic energy
◦ Made in universe

Only visible light, radio waves come through
atmosphere
◦ Telescopes on ground can only detect these

Light telescope (optical)
◦ Lenses to reflect, refract light to magnify object

Radio telescope
◦ Detect radio waves
 Change into picture
© Andrew Newbound 2013

Different types of stars
◦ Different types, amounts of electromagnetic energy
© Andrew Newbound 2013

Brightness
◦ How far away the star is
◦ How big star is

Colour
◦ Blue = hottest
◦ Red = coolest

Distance
◦ Using red-shift
© Andrew Newbound 2013


Light from star = Brocken into spectrum
Black lines on spectrum
◦ Colours absorbed
◦ Each element absorbs 1 or more colours
◦ Where black lines are = which elements in star
© Andrew Newbound 2013

Spherical
◦ Sphere like shape

Celestial sphere
◦ Belief that night sky is a sphere

Independently
◦ By oneself

Heliocentric
◦ The sun is the centre of the solar system

Classifying
◦ Put into groups
© Andrew Newbound 2013

Reflected
◦ To put out light from another source

Heretical
◦ Crime against the state

Geo… (prefix)
◦ Earth

Helio… (prefix)
◦ Sun
© Andrew Newbound 2013

Wanderers
◦ Term from early astronomy
◦ Objects that moved independently of the celestial
sphere
◦ Moon
◦ Sun

Inquisition
◦ Killing anyone who spoke out against church
◦ Took anyone who said sun was centre of universe
© Andrew Newbound 2013

No one spoke out against church
◦ Power in communities
◦ Killed if did

Church stopped stopping advance of
scientific understanding in 1600s
◦ Believed that if meddled would look even worse
◦ Weren’t only learned in community
◦ More evidence against church’s view on science
© Andrew Newbound 2013

Early astronomers noticed earth was round
◦ Curved shadow on moon during eclipse

Venus proved heliocentric model
◦ Went through phases like moon
◦ Earth blocking sun
◦ Light reflecting off it
© Andrew Newbound 2013

Later scientists contributed more to
astronomy
◦
◦
◦
◦
◦
◦
More mapping
Didn’t disagree with beliefs
Built on others teachings
Invented technologies
More intelligent
No death threats
© Andrew Newbound 2013

384-322BC
◦ First evidence of curved earth

310-230BC
◦ Heliocentric model

276-194BC
◦ Circumference of earth determined (46000km)
 Slightly higher than actual circumference (41000km)

127-151AD
◦ Stars catelogued
© Andrew Newbound 2013

1473-1543AD
◦ Heliocentric model proof

1571-1630AD
◦ 3 laws of planetary motion

1564-1642AD
◦ 1st telescope

1643-1727AD
◦ 1st astronomer to use maths
© Andrew Newbound 2013

In sound
◦ Pitch increases as source approaches
 Waves shoved together
 Apparent increase in pitch
◦ Pitch decreases as source moves away
 Waves spread apart
 Apparent decrease in pitch

Sound
◦ Consists of travelling compressions/refractions of
air pressure
 Longitudinal/compressional waves

Closer crests = higher frequency
© Andrew Newbound 2013

Same with electromagnetic radiation
◦ Just another wave phenomenon


Frequency increases = blue shift
Frequency decreases = red shift
◦ Not actual colours
◦ Just redder/bluer


Most parts of electromagnetic spectrum used
Determine how fast objects move toward and
away from earth
© Andrew Newbound 2013

Use hydrogen
◦ Wavelengths
 21cm = no shift
 21.1cm = 0.1cm red shift
 19.9cm = 0.1cm blue shift
© Andrew Newbound 2013

Galaxy moving towards earth
◦ Waves bunch up as approaches telescope
 Shifts colour towards blue
◦ Visa versa
© Andrew Newbound 2013

About 14 billion years ago
◦ Universe compressed into very tiny space
 Size of pinhead
◦ Exploded
◦ Created universe that expanded in all directions

Evidence
◦ Red shift
 Spectrum is shifted towards red (moving away)
◦ Static radiation can be detected
 Back radiation from Big Bang
© Andrew Newbound 2013

Object with gravity so strong that nothing can
escape it
◦ Not even light

If earth compressed to black hole
◦ 12cm diameter

Detect
◦ Observing bodies orbiting them
◦ Observing them ripping the gas off a star
 As gas accelerates – gives off x-rays

Typical black hole
◦ 40 million times heavier than sun
© Andrew Newbound 2013


Clusters of star systems which themselves
join together into larger systems
Types:
◦ Spiral galaxy
elliptical galaxy
irregular galaxy
© Andrew Newbound 2013




Small rocky world
Most revolve around sun between Mars and
Jupiter (asteroid belt)
Struck earth many times
Made of
◦
◦
◦
◦
Carbon (C-type)
Silicate (S-type)
Metallic (m-type) (metal)
Dark
 Water ice/frozen carbon monoxide mixed with rock
© Andrew Newbound 2013
© Andrew Newbound 2013





Dirty snowball
Size of mountain
Long/narrow
Tails of gas and dust when approaching sun
Haley’s Comet
◦ Orbits every 76 years
© Andrew Newbound 2013


Chunk of rock/metal/dust in space
Shooting star
◦ Not actually stars
 Small bits of rock burning up in the atmosphere
© Andrew Newbound 2013


Meteoroids that pass through Earth's
atmosphere that survive and hit Earth’s
surface
Types
◦ Stone
◦ Iron
◦ Stony iron
© Andrew Newbound 2013



Sky as seen from Earth
Large hollow ball with Earth in centre
Stars = inside of hollow sphere
© Andrew Newbound 2013


Angle from north to point on the horizon
Measured in a clockwise direction by a
compass
E
N
S
S
© Andrew Newbound 2013


Point above horizon
Azimuth and elevation used together to
locate a star
Zenith (90°)
Horizon (0°)
© Andrew Newbound 2013
© Andrew Newbound 2013


All elements made in star by fusion
2 hydrogen's fuse together to make helium
and energy
© Andrew Newbound 2013
© Andrew Newbound 2013


Oldest = Sirius B (white dwarf)
Burning hydrogen as fuel
◦ Main sequence
◦ Vega, Alpha, Centuri B

Burning helium as fuel
◦ Red giants, blue giants
 Betelgeuse (beetle juice)

Closest to death
◦ Sirius B (white dwarf)
© Andrew Newbound 2013

Highest luminosity
◦ Blue giants/super giants

Cause of luminosity
◦ Size

Lowest luminosity
◦ White dwarf, red dwarf
◦ E.g. Sirius B

Highest surface temperature
◦ Blue giants
© Andrew Newbound 2013

Main sequence stars
◦ Become Red Giants when runs out of hydrogen

Vega, Alpha, Century B
◦ Will become white dwarfs

Sirius B
◦ Will not become a main sequence star
 Was


Vega = next Red Giant
Betelgeuse = next black hole/neutron star
© Andrew Newbound 2013
Unit 6
© Andrew Newbound 2013

Neurons
◦ Shape and size to allow them to carry messages

Verves
◦ Bundles of neurons

Sensory neurons
◦ Neurons in sense organs
◦ Carry a message in 1 direction only
 From sense organ to brain/spinal column
◦ Work constantly if internal
◦ Essential in maintaining homeostasis
© Andrew Newbound 2013

Neuron
◦ Carry messages

Axon
◦ Carries the nerve impulse

Dendrites
◦ Joints in cells

Toxins
◦ Poisons

Synapse
◦ Gap between neurons

CNS
◦ Central Nervous System
© Andrew Newbound 2013

MS (Multiple Sclerosis)
◦ Caused by myelin sheath breaking down

Paraplegia
◦ Caused by broken nerves
© Andrew Newbound 2013

Sensory neurons
◦ Detect stimulus of light/heat
◦ All about senses
◦ Carry messages in 1 direction
 From sense to brain

Motor neurons
◦ Movement
◦ Joins CNS to a muscle/gland

Interneuron
◦ Connects sensory and motor neurons
© Andrew Newbound 2013

Skeleton
◦
◦
◦
◦
◦

>200 bones
Supports
Protects
Helps body move
Place where bones meet joint
Muscles
◦ No muscles = movement
◦ Only pull
◦ In pairs
© Andrew Newbound 2013

Nerves
◦ Switch muscles on and off
◦ Messages = nervous impulses
◦ Joined at spinal chord

Cerebral cortex
◦ Movement

Blood
◦ Over half=plasma
◦ Go around world twice if put end to end
© Andrew Newbound 2013

Heart
◦ Can fill a petrol tanker in 1 day
◦ Beats faster after exercise

Digestive system
◦ Energy
◦ 7.5m – length of small intestine
© Andrew Newbound 2013

Nervous system
◦ Group of tissues and organs
 Just like digestive/circulatory system

Nerve cells
◦ Longest cell in our body
◦ Called a neuron
© Andrew Newbound 2013


Organised into Central Nervous System (CNS)
and Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)
CNS
◦ Brain and spinal chord
◦ Body’s control centre
◦ Organises information from sensory organs and
receptors
◦ Issues outgoing commands to parts of the body
◦ Brain protected by skull
◦ Spinal chord protected by spine
© Andrew Newbound 2013

PNS
◦
◦
◦
◦
Sensory neurons and motor neurons
Sense organs
Muscles
Glands
© Andrew Newbound 2013
© Andrew Newbound 2013
Receptors
Stimulus
Sensory
organs
CNS
Response
Motor
neurons
Effectors
© Andrew Newbound 2013

Receptors – sensory neurons
◦ Hands, eyes, nose, tongue, ears, detect blood
pressure, organs
◦ Receive information which gets transmitted to the
brain
© Andrew Newbound 2013




Rapid involuntary movement or response
Important in times of danger
E.g. Blinking, being startled by a bad noise
Fast
◦ Few neurons involved
◦ Many never reach brain, only go as far as spinal
cord
© Andrew Newbound 2013
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Brain
Spinal cord
Nerves
Controls everything we do
◦ Sends information through neurons

Allows us to read stimuli and respond
accordingly
© Andrew Newbound 2013
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Longest cells in the body
Neural messages
◦ Received in the dendrites
◦ Transmitted along the axon to axon terminals
◦ Transmitted between neurons by chemicals
 Neurotransmitters
© Andrew Newbound 2013
© Andrew Newbound 2013
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Controls organs of our bodies
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Hormones
◦ Releases hormones
◦ Control various functions
 Growth
 Development
 Reproduction
◦ Produced in glands
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E.g.
Thyroid
Pituitary
Adrenal
Pancreas
Testes
Ovaries
© Andrew Newbound 2013
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Glands
◦ Small organs that release hormones

Hormones
◦ Go through bloodstream
◦ Tell cells what to do
© Andrew Newbound 2013
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Pituitary gland
◦ Incharge
◦ Releases hormones to control many other glands
◦ Controls body functions

Thyroid
◦ Growth hormones
◦ Stay alert
◦ Full of energy

Adrenal glands
◦ Gives boost

Pancreas
◦ Helps glucose enter cells
© Andrew Newbound 2013
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Puberty
◦ Type of rapid growth and development
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Sexual maturity
◦ Lead to when sex hormones cause changes

Hypothalamus releases hormone
◦ Tells pituitary gland to release a hormone
 Acts on the gonads to release sex hormones
 Testosterone and oestrogen


Male sex cells
Female sex cell
= testes
= ova (egg)
© Andrew Newbound 2013
Cerebrum
c
© Andrew Newbound 2013
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Weighs 1.4kg
Cerebrum
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Thinking part of brain
Controls muscles
Where memory lives
Lets you reason
Hypothalamus
◦ Controls temperature
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Cerebellum
◦ Balance, movement and coordination
© Andrew Newbound 2013
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Brain stem
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Connects rest of brain with spinal cord
Breathing air
Digesting food
Circulating blood
Pituitary gland
◦ Produce + release hormones into body
◦ Puberty
◦ Metabolism

Amygdala
◦ emotions
© Andrew Newbound 2013
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Cortex
◦ Controls activity of body’s moving parts
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Cortex
◦ Thinking, remembering & problem solving
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Receptors
◦ Sense

Effectors
◦ React to sense
© Andrew Newbound 2013
Hormone
Source of Hormone
Comment
Adrenalin
Adrenal Glands
Increases breathing rate
May be caused by fright, rage or and heart beat
excitement
Insulin
Pancreas
Too much glucose in blood
Helps cells extract
glucose from blood.
Thyroxin
Thyroid glands
Controls rate of cell
respiration
Pituitary
Pituitary gland (under brain)
Hormones
Controls other glands
Sex
Testes
Hormones Ovaries
Produce sperm
Produce ova (eggs)
© Andrew Newbound 2013