Transcript Kernel

COMP091 – Operating Systems 1
Kernel, Interrupts,
Files, Directories
Kernel
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Kernel: Performs basic necessary functions
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– File systems
– Device drivers
– Memory manager
– Process manager (Scheduler, dispatcher, etc..)
– System calls
The part of the OS that is always resident and active
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Sits between applications and hardware
Kernel
Types of Kernels
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Monolithic vs Micro kernel
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Monolithic kernels perform most of their
functions themselves and are larger, but
sometimes thought to be faster
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Microkernel performs only the minimum
functions themselves, using user space servers
to perform as much as possible
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Microkernels are smaller, considered to be
easier to maintain, but maybe slower
Hybrid Kernels
• A compromise approach
• Like a larger micro kernel
• Avoids performance problems of micro kernels
• Most commercial kernels considered to be
hybrid kernels
– NT, XP, Vista, Seven
• Unix based kernels are monolithic
– Except Hurd and Minix which are micro
Modular Kernel
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Linux kernel is monolithic, but also modular
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Kernel modules can be loaded at run time
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Modules often handle optional features
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But only if needed
Specific device drivers, file system handlers etc
Windows DLLs (dynamic link libraries) perform
similar function but in less disciplined manner
Modes
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Supervisor, or kernel mode
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When machine operates in kernel mode full access to
hardware is available
Protected, or user mode
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In this mode hardware (and some other resources) are
accessible only through system calls
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Mode changes when the OS dispatches a user process
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Returns to kernel mode when system call is made
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Mode changes are expensive, hence slow micro kernels
System Calls
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System call
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The method used by a process to request action
by the operating system.
Used to perform functions not available in user
space
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IO
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Spawn a process
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Other Operating System functions
Making a System Call
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Program sets data in specified location for OS
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Register
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Push on stack
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Program uses TRAP instruction to generate a particular
interrupt
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Interrupt causes control to pass to appropriate handler
process in kernel
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Switch to kernel mode
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Kernel processes call (if valid)
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Control then returns to application (and to user mode)
Interrupts
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Usually implemented through hardware
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Interrupt controller
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Can be generated by hardware, software,
firmware
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Most systems have a number of different
interrupt numbers (types)
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Each interrupt type causes transfer of control to
an interrupt vector
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Address of process(es) that handle the interrupt
Interrupt Types
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Shared interrupts have more than one handler
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Each handler is given an opportunity to handle
the interrupt
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More efficient to not share interrupts
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Interrupt handlers can “mask” other interrupt
types to prevent the handler being interrupted
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“Masking” prevents an interrupt type from
working
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Some interrupts are non-maskable
Sources of Interrupts
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System calls
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Hardware/Firmware
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IO devices generate interrupt when operation
completes
Timer
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TRAP instruction generates an interrupt to system
call handler
Timer interrupts are used to signal end of time slice,
update system clock etc
Memory violations
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Segment fault if attempt made to access address
outside of allowed segment
Interrupt Process
• Hardware interrupts current process
• Machine state is saved (usually on stack)
• Control passed to handler
• Interrupts may get masked
• Interrupt is processed
• Machine state restored
• Control returned to interrupted program
Interrupt Lines
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On the Intel 8259 family of PICs
(Programmable Interrupt Controller) there are 8
lines
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X86 computers use two 8259's for 16 interrupt
lines, IRQ0 – IRQ15
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IRQ2 used by second controller to signal the
first
IRQ assignments
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IRQ 0 system timer (cannot be changed);
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IRQ 1 keyboard controller (cannot be changed);
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IRQ 2 cascaded signals from IRQs 8 -15
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Any devices configured to use IRQ 2 will actually be
using IRQ 9
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IRQ 3 serial port controller for COM2 (shared with COM4, if
present);
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IRQ 4 serial port controller for COM1 (shared with COM3, if
present);
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IRQ 5 LPT port 2 or sound card;
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IRQ 6 floppy disk controller;
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IRQ 7 LPT port 1
IRQ assignments
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IRQ 8 RTC Timer
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IRQ 9 Left open for peripherals or SCSI host adapter;
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IRQ 10 Left open for peripherals or SCSI or NIC;
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IRQ 11 Left open for peripherals or SCSI or NIC;
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IRQ 12 mouse on PS/2 connector;
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IRQ 13 math co-processor or integrated floating point unit
or inter-processor interrupt (use depends on OS);
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IRQ 14 primary ATA channel;
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IRQ 15 secondary ATA channel
APIC
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Newer x86 systems use Advanced
Programmable Interrupt Controller (APIC)
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Programming interface for up to 255 hardware
IRQ lines per APIC,
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Typical system supports only 24 hardware lines.
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Extra 8 IRQs are used for PCI interrupts,
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Avoids conflict between dynamic PCI interrupts
and static ISA interrupts
PCI Interrupts
• PCI bus supports 4 interrupts called A B C and
D
• These are dynamically mapped to four of the
APIC interrupt lines
• Devices share the interrupts, so the interrupt
handlers have to check buffers or registers to see
if the interupt is really for them
Resources
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A little out of date but comprehensive:
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http://www.osdata.com/index.htm
Wikipedia articles are good
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http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operating_system
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http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interrupt
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http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kernel_%28computi
ng%29
Filesystems
Purpose of File Systems
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Mechanism that provides long-term information
storage
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Large amounts of information
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Stored persistently
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Survives termination of process
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Information is stored in files indexed by
directories
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The file system is the component of the OS that
manipulates the information in files and
directories
Files
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A collection of related bytes having meaning
only to the creator
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The file is “contained in” in a directory.
– Actually, only the file name is contained in a
directory, file is in some random location on the
disk.
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The file may have attributes (name, creator,
date, type, permissions)
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The file usually has internal structure
Files
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The OS may or may not know about the internal
structure of files
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An Operating System understands program image
format in order to create a process.
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The UNIX shell understands how directory files
are structured
Usually the Operating System recognizes file
types, but the internal structure of file is not the
business of the OS
Files
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A file is a logical storage unit defined by the OS
providing a mechanism to store data on
physical devices such as disk , tape , CD
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Files are physically created by the OS
File Naming
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Some OS (Linux) recognize the difference
between upper and lower case letters in names
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Windows doesn't
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The file extension (part of the name following
the last “.”) conventionally indicates the type of
the file
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To the OS, file extension are largely just
conventions and are not enforced by OS
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But user software is aware of extension and uses
programs that are associated with the extensions
File Extensions
File Attributes
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File attributes can vary from one OS to another
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Generally something like the following is
maintained
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Name – the only information kept in humanreadable form
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Identifier - unique tag (number) identifies file
within file system
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Type - needed for systems that support different
types
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Location - pointer to file location on device
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Size - current file size
File Attributes (cont.)
– File owner, for protection, security, and usage
monitoring
– Protection - controls who can do reading, writing,
executing
– Time stamps: MAC – Modified, Accessed,
Created
– user identification
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Information about files is kept in the directory
structure, which is maintained on the disk.
File Types
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Depends on OS but these are common:
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Regular files: User files (ASCII or binary)
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Directory files: System files used to maintain
directory structure
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I/O files: Special system files dedicated to I/O
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Executable files: OS usually expects special
structure for these files
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Links: pointers to other files
Blocks
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Actual access to data on storage medium is not
byte by byte
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Bytes must be packed into physical blocks
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Block size is fixed for disks, variable for tape
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If user wants smaller, larger or no “logical”
blocks data must still be mapped into physical
blocks for transfer to medium
File Access Modes
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Generally two types of access are provided
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Sequential access:
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Starts from the beginning and reads sequentially
Random access:
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Can access any byte in the file directly.
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OS provides these access modes to the user
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Before database IBM OS's also provided
indexed access
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Random access by key
Sequential Access
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Implemented by the filesystem.
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Data are accessed one record after the other
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Reads cause a pointer to be moved ahead
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Writes allocate space for the record at the EOF
and move the pointer to the new End Of File.
Random, or Direct Access
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Method only useful for disks.
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The file is viewed as a numbered sequence of
records or bytes
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Relative record access / Relative byte access
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There are no restrictions on which blocks are
read/written or order in which read or written
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User now says "read n" rather than "read next".
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"n" is a number relative to the beginning of file,
not relative to an absolute physical disk
location.
File Operations
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Create: Tell OS that file data are coming and set
attributes and allocate space, enter in directory
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Delete: Free disk space, adjust directory
structure
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Open : Fetch the attributes and location of the
file and prepare to transfer data
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Close: Release internal table space and write the
file's last block
File Operations
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Read: Data is read from the file and put into
memory for user access
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Write: Data are written to the file at the current
or specified position
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Append: Adds data to the end of file
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Seek: For random access of data from the file,
repositioning the file pointer for reading
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Rename: Change the name of the file
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Get & Set attribute: Get attributes of file or set
attributes of a file
Directories
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Mechanism provided by OS to keep track of
files.
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A directory records information about the files
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Typically contains one entry per file. It may
contain Name, Attributes and Location
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Or it may contain Name and pointer to Attribute
information
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File may be a subdirectory, producing a
hierarchical directory structure with “paths” to
files
Directory Structure
Path Names
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Strings together directory names and the file
name
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Starting from from some point in the structure
down to the bottom
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Absolute path starts at root
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Relative path starts at some other point, usually
the current working directory
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The special path “.” refers to the current
directory and “..” refers to the parent of the
current directory
Directory Operations
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Create
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Delete
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Only empty directory can be deleted
Rename
This week's lab
• Explore some basic attributes of windows
directories