Transcript Western Europe

POST CLASSICAL WESTERN EUROPE
FROM 476 TO 1453 C.E.
FROM PERIPHERAL REGION
TO NASCENT GREAT POWER
QUEST FOR POLITICAL ORDER AFTER 476 CE
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Germanic kingdoms
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Visigoths dominated Spain, from 470's to early 8th century
Ostrogoths dominated Italy, the 5th century to 530's
Lombards invaded, ruled Italy, 550's to the mid-8th century
Franks, Burgundians controlled Gaul, Netherlands
Angles, Saxons, Jutes established kingdoms in Britain
Political Culture
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Germans organized around tribes, families
Personal loyalty to king, local noble not state
Warrior aristocracy assisted royalty
Masses of Germans were free peasants with duties to king
Center of Europe shifted from Italy to northern area
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Area in Northern France, Western Germany, Netherlands
Towns declined, only non-German structure was the church
Most Germans were Arian Christians but tolerated Catholics
EUROPE c. 526 – 600 C.E.
RISE OF THE FRANKS
• The Franks
– Settled in Belgium, Northern France, Western Germany
– Developed group identity during the 3rd century C.E.
– Politically inexperienced, little exposure to Roman society
• Clovis
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A strong military and political leader
Eliminated last vestiges of Roman authority in Gaul
Launched military campaigns against other Germanic peoples
Built the most powerful and dynamic state in western Europe
• Clovis's conversion
– Most Germans were Arian Christians
• Converted to Arianism by St. Ulfias before migration
• Hostile to Catholics but generally tolerant if taxes paid
• The Franks converted to Roman Christianity
– “In Hoc Signet Vince” – in this sign conquer
– Alliance with Catholics greatly strengthened the Franks
CHARLEMAGNE
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The Carolingians
– Merovingian leaders lost control after Clovis's death
– Carolingians asserted authority, the early 8th century
– Charles Martel
• Mayor of the Palace, chief official under Merovingian kings
• Stops Muslim invasion of Europe, 732 at Battle of Tours
– Pepin becomes king, 751
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Pope appointed Pepin as King of the Franks
Invaded Italy to save Pope from the Lombards
Pope allows Franks to reign as King of Italy
Pepin grants the area in Italy around Rome to Pope
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Charlemagne (reigned 768-814 C.E.)
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Administration
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Charlemagne as emperor
– Charles Martel's grandson, founder of Carolingian empire
– Control extended to northeast Spain, Bavaria, north Italy
– Rulers of eastern Europe, southern Italy paid tribute
– Capital city at Aachen (in modern Germany)
– Relied on aristocratic deputies, known as counts
– Used missi dominici to oversee local authorities
– Pope Leo III proclaimed Charlemagne emperor, 800
– Coronation strained relations with Byzantine emperors
THE RISE OF THE FRANKISH EMPIRE
BREAKUP OF THE FRANKISH EMPIRE
• Louis the Pious (re. 814-840)
– Charlemagne's only surviving son, lost control of the counts
– His three sons divided the empire into three kingdoms, 843
• Invasions
– Muslims raided Mediterranean coasts
• Conquered Spain, Sicily, Sardinia
• Raided coasts of S. France, S. Italy
– Magyars invaded from the east
– Vikings invaded from the north
• The Vikings
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Scandinavian homelands - Norway, Denmark, and Sweden
Raided regions from Russia to Spain
Established colonies in Iceland, Greenland, Canada
Conquered parts of England, Ireland, Scotland, France
• Outstanding seafarers
– Fleets could go to interior regions via rivers
– Attacked towns and villages; favorite targets were Christian
VIKINGS, MAGYARS, AND ARABS
NEW REGIONAL STATES
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England
Small Keltic, German kingdoms merged into larger realm
Fought Scandinavian raids
King Alfred (reigned 871-899) expanded to the north
Alfred's successors controlled England c. mid-10th century
Germany and Italy
After Carolingian empire, local lords took control
King Otto I (reigned 936-73) defeated Magyars in 955
Imposed authority in Central Europe
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Ruled Germany, Netherlands, Burgundy, Austria, Switzerland
Suzerain lords over Northern Italy, Slovenia, Czech lands
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Otto's crowned emperor by pope in 962
Led armies to support the papacy in Italy
France
Counts and other local authorities became local lords
Vikings settled in northern France
Nobles elect Counts of Paris as King to replace Carolingians
Spain and Southern Italy
Spanish Christian states in North warred against Muslim caliphs
Southern Italy patchwork of loyalties; eventually overrun by Normans
East Central and Northern Europe
Vikings establish three kingdoms: Denmark, Norway, Sweden
Poland and Hungary are large border states in east
EUROPE c. 1000 C.E.
FEUDAL SYSTEM
• Lords and vassals
– Lord owned land, needs soldiers
• Trades land for service
• Grants of land called fiefs
– Vassal provided defense
– Received livelihood from land
– Vassals provided military equipment
– Vassals owed lord:
• Loyalty, obedience, respect, counsel
• Military service when called into service
– Lords often made smaller grant to others
• Called sub-division of fief
• Lowest, service owning noble was a knight
– Church often made vassals of soldiers for defense
• Church could hold land as a vassal to a lord
• Church often held land in own right
– Women could be vassals, own fiefs but not fight
• Feudal politics
– Multi-layered network of lord-vassal relationships
– Political stability depended on discipline, control
– Lords, knights often had conflicting loyalties
TWO FEUDAL STATES
FRANCE
HOLY ROMAN EMPIRE
MANORALISM: ECONOMIC FEUDALISM
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Serfdom
Difference between peasants, serfs
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Peasants were free, owned their own land
Serfs not free, could not own land
Serfs, peasants lived similar lives
Serfs as an intermediate category
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Began under Romans
Diocletian bound people to occupations
Serfdom arose during invasions, marauders
Slaves, peasants frequently intermarried
Free peasants became serfs for protection
Serfs' obligations
Labor service and rents in kind
Could not move without permission
Serfs had right to work on land, pass job to heirs
Serfs often drafted as foot soldiers in feudal armies
Manors
Principal form of agricultural organization
Manor was a large estate controlled by lord
Many lords could execute serfs for serious misconduct
Manors were largely self-sufficient communities
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Trade: luxuries, manufactured products, finished goods
Serfs had to work lord’s land first, before their own plots
ECONOMY OF MEDIEVAL EUROPE
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Agriculture
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Heavy plows
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A rural society
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Trade
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Population
– Agricultural production suffered from repeated invasions
– Small wooden plows of Mediterranean farmers did not work well in the north
– Heavy plows appeared in 6th century, could turn soils
– Common from 8th century, production increased
– Cultivation of new lands, watermills, and rotating crops
– Agricultural surplus not enough to support large cities
– Towns were few and sparsely populated
– Trade, urban centers began to develop, 10th century
– Trade arose in Mediterranean, North Sea, Black Sea
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In 200 C.E., European population stood at 36 million
In 400 C.E., 31 million
In 600 C.E., 26 million
In 800 C.E., edged up to 29 million
In 900 C.E., 30 million
By 1000 C.E., back to 36 mil
THE AGE OF FAITH
•Post-Classical Western Europe as An Age of Faith
•Every aspect of life was dominated by the Church
•Rulers were crowned by the “Grace of God”
•Political rule viewed as divinely sanctioned
•All Christians were expected to tithe to the church
•Education, art dictated by Church ideals
•Calendar organized by faith holidays
•Fair prices, economic practices dictated by church
•All answers to questions were dictated largely by faith
•Law was largely dictated by religion
•Serious matters submitted to Church for arbitration, resolution
•Popes, clergy held enormous power
•Church held lands independent of many rulers
•Church lands could not be taxed
•Church lands were often enormously wealthy
•Bishops could not be installed by secular rulers
•Secular rulers appealed to Rome for mediation
•Clergy could not be tried in secular courts
•Popes could deprive kings of their thrones
•Separate canon law for church
•Social Hierarchy of the Church
•Commoners could rise to leading positions
•Social background often unimportant in church
•Women in church had enormous influence
•Symbols of the Post-Classical Age of Faith
•The Cathedral
•The Crusades
•The Pilgrimage
•The Monastery
CONVERSION TO CHRISTIANITY
• The Franks and the Church
– Franks viewed as protectors of the papacy
– Charlemagne worked to spread Christianity
• Reconquered parts of Spain from Muslims
• Charlemagne forced Saxons to convert
• Built churches, schools, monasteries
• The spread of Christianity
– Popes took an active roll in sending out missionaries
– Pagan ways did not disappear immediately
• Scandinavia, Baltic lands were last to convert
• Pagan rituals often blended into Christianity
• Cities, towns largely Christian but countryside weakly so
– By 1000 C.E., western Europe was Roman Christianity
• Irish, Mozarabic rites of Christianity accepted by Pope
• Arian Christianity eliminated by Franks
THE PAPACY
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Pope Gregory I (590-604 C.E.)
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The conversion of England
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Rise of Church as a Temporal Power
– Organized defense of Rome against Lombards' menace
– Reasserted papal primacy over other bishops
– Strongly emphasized the sacrament of penance
– Gregory's missionary campaigns in western Europe
– First converted English kings
– By 800 C.E., England securely in the Roman church
– Popes claimed that the spiritual powers were superior to temporal
• Italy lacked any great power; city-states constantly quarreled
• German emperors at war with nobles; French kings too weak
• Pope played one side off another, acquired lands in Italy
– Many European bishops acquired lands, became part of feudalism
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• In Germany, owned 10% of the best lands
• In Spain, Baltic spiritual military orders led wars on pagans
Papal Powers
– Spiritual head of all Christians including aristocrats, royalty
• Weapons included excommunication, interdict, canon law
• Economically received tithe, freedom from taxation, owned great economic wealth
• Popes became head of reform movements
– Abolished simony, insisted on celibacy of priests, reformed monasteries
– Established College of Cardinals to elect popes not kings, mobs
– Popes Gregory VIII and Innocent III defied, deposed kings
– Popes launched crusades against Muslims, heretic Christians, some Italians
MONASTICISM
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Origin
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Monastic rules
– Christians practiced asceticism in deserts of Egypt, 2nd and 3rd century
– Monastic lifestyle became popular when Christianity became legal
– St. Benedict (480-547 C.E.) provided a set of regulations
– Virtues of Benedictine monks: poverty, chastity, and obedience
– Western monastic rites differed from Eastern rites
• Western rites emphasized work, prayer, service to the poor
• Eastern rites were relatively isolated, dedicated to prayer but not outside contacts
– St. Scholastica (482-543 C.E.)
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• St. Benedict's sister, a nun
• Adapted the Rule, and provided guidance for religious life of women
The roles of monasteries
– Became dominant feature in social and cultural life of western Europe
– Accumulated large landholdings but spread knowledge
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Wealthy patrons donated land to monks for monasteries
Taught peasants, serfs techniques of farming
Cleared forested lands, planted them
Organized much of rural labor for agriculture
– Provided a variety of social services
• Inns and shelters for travelers and refugees
• Orphanages, medical centers
• Schools, libraries and scriptoria
– Monks served needs of rural population
RISE OF REGIONAL STATES
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The Holy Roman Empire
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Otto of Saxony rose in northern Germany by the mid-10th century; Pope John XII proclaimed him emperor in 962
Later emperors warred alternately with powerful dukes, popes for influence in empire
Eventually emperorship becomes elected by seven most powerful imperial dukes, bishops
Smaller territorial states emerged, weakened centralizing efforts of the emperors
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Formerly, important church officials were appointed by imperial authorities
Pope Gregory VII ordered an end to the practice
Emperor Henry IV was excommunicated because of his disobedience
Investiture Contest
The Capetians
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Hugh Capet, a minor and weak noble, was elected king in 987
In the next three centuries, Capetian kings gained power and wealth gradually
Spend most of energy asserting their power over regional powerful nobles
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Descendants of Vikings who carved out a state in Normandy of France
Nominally subject to Carolingian and Capetian rulers, but acted independently
The Normans
The British Isles
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England: Normans to Plantagenets
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Duke William of Normandy invaded England
Introduced Norman style of feudalism to England
Warred constantly with France for control of territory
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Ireland and Scotland too disunited due to clan warfare – at mercy of England
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Northern Italy nominally part of the Holy Roman Empire
Church influence in Italy
Italy
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France
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New Emperors
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The popes ruled a good-sized territory in central Italy
The church also influenced politics of northern Italy
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A series of prosperous city-states emerged by the 12th century
Normans conquered southern Italy, brought it to Roman Catholic Christianity
Italian states
Christian and Muslim states in Iberia
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Muslim conquerors ruled most of the peninsula, 8th-11th centuries
Christian kingdoms took the peninsula except Granada by late 13th cent
EUROPE, C. EARLY 13TH CENTURY
GROWTH OF THE AGRICULTURAL ECONOMY
• Expansion of arable land
– Population rises
– Cleared forests, swamps
– Lords encouraged such efforts
• Improved farming techniques
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Crop rotation methods
Use of fertilizer
Cultivation of beans increased
More domestic animals
Books on economy, agriculture
• New tools and technology
– Extensive use of watermills and heavy plows
– Use of horseshoe and horse collar, increased land under cultivation
– 3-plot rotation of planted land
• New food supplies
– Before 1000, European diet - grains
– After 1000, more meat, dairy products, fish, vegetables, legumes
• Population growth
– From 29 to 79 million between 800 C.E. and 1300 C.E.
REVIVAL OF TOWNS AND TRADE
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Urbanization
– Peasants, serfs, tradesmen flocked to cities and towns
• Towns allowed serfs to acquire freedom if they stayed 1 year, 1 day
• Local nobles allowed towns charters, rights for direct taxes
• Towns ruled by urban elite usually from guilds, wealthy
– Textile production
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• Northern Italian cities and Flanders became centers of wool textiles
• Trade in wool products fueled economic development of Europe
Mediterranean trade
– Trading City-States
• Venice, Genoa were the most prominent but others such as Pisa, Amalfi
• Wealth based on sea-power, luxury trade
– Italians established colonies in Mediterranean, Black Sea
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• Conquered, settled cities, built factories and trade centers
• Established trading alliances, signed treaties with many including Muslims
The Hanseatic League
– Hansa - association of trading cities, controlled trade of N. Europe
• German trading city-states made alliance; established factories in North, Baltic
Seas
• Concluded treaties with many states; admitted key foreign cities to alliance
• So powerful could resist kingdoms, made war on opponents
• Trade is fish, grains, iron, cloth
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– Major European rivers, entrepots linked Hansa to the Mediterranean
Improved business techniques
– Bankers issued letters of credit to merchants
– Commercial partnerships for limiting risks of commercial investment
EUROPEAN CITIES
MEDIEVAL TRADE ROUTES
TRADING CITIES
SOCIAL CHANGES
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The three estates
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"Those who pray" – clergy, spiritual estate
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"Those who fight" - feudal nobles, military estate
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"Those who work" - mostly peasants and serfs
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Ruling hierarchy: Popes, bishops, abbots
Common clergy: Monks, priests
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Royalty who ran a state
Land owning lords such as dukes, counts, princes
Lowest nobility with no land were knights
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Peasants and Serfs
Those who lived in Towns (Burg = Burghers)
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Not an estate in most countries
Grew to become middle class
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Guilds
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Independent cities
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Chivalry
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Rise of Estates General, Parliaments, and Assemblies
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Established standards of quality for manufactured goods
Determined prices and regulated entry of new workers
Ran free cities as urban aristocracy
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Expansion of cities did not fit into feudal framework
Urban populations were increasingly able to resist feudal nobles
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Code of ethics and behavior for feudal nobles
Church directed chivalry toward Christian faith, piety
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Kings had to govern with the consent of the nobles, clergy
Could not tax without their approval for which demanded rights
Eventually most rulers granted nobles, clergy rights to assemble, to debate
Also granted right to free peasants, citizens of towns who formed the “commons”
Many assemblies limited rights of rulers, became permanent bodies
GENDER ROLES IN MEDIEVAL EUROPE
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Feminine Roles of the Day
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The Virgin Mary was the ideal
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Mother to children
Supports husband quietly, diligently
A patriarchal society but strong feminine roles
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Very limited as it was a “male’s world”
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Female rulers were not unknown
Public Role
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Women could own property in own right
Feudalism did not prohibit women from fighting but often they named a champion
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Generally seen as regents for son, grandson
If widowed, lost rights if remarried or when male came of age
Frequently seen in Spain, Scandinavia, England, Italy
Laws would not permit women to rule in France, Germany, Eastern Europe
Private Role
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ALWAYS differentiate between aristocracy, poor
Aristocratic Women
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Poor women
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Women were the womb to breed the heir; marriage politics taken very seriously
Roles public and private limited by convention and wealth to social roles and little else
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Equally a man’s world but women had to work next to males for family to survive
Most women married due to pregnancy, married early in life, died young
Middle Class (Urban) women
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Towns and cities offered fresh opportunities for women
Women worked in a wide range of occupations
Most guilds admitted women, and women also had their own guilds
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As nuns women acquired social equality with men by renouncing sexuality
Abbesses, nuns could run monasteries, were educated, had great influence
The Church Women
Women of the Day
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Eleanor, Countess Aquitaine, Duchess of Normandy, Queen of England
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Most celebrated woman of her day
Inherited richest lands in Europe; married King of England
Supported troubadours, promoted good manners, refinement, arts, and romantic love
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Leading mystic, intellectual, advisors to bishops, popes
Revolutionized techniques in music
Blessed Hildegard von Bingen
THE CHURCH AND LEARNING
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Cathedral schools
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Universities
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The influence of Aristotle
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Scholasticism: St. Thomas Aquinas
– Bishops, archbishops in France, Italy organized schools
– Cathedral schools concentrated on liberal arts
– Some offered instruction in law, medicine, and theology
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Large cathedral schools developed into universities
Most students trained for church, bureaucratic jobs
Most students were from middle classes and not nobility
Student guilds and faculty guilds
Chief degree was theology
– Increased contacts led to rediscovery of Aristotle
– Obtained works from Byzantines, Muslims
– Scholasticism
• System learning applied to Christianity
• Intellectual and rational
– St. Thomas Aquinas
• Dominican scholar
• Famous scholastic theologian
• Wrote Summa Theologica
– Sought to harmonize
• Greek rationality
• Aristotelian learning
• Christianity
THE RELIGION OF THE MASSES
• Popular Religion
– Sacraments and Devotions
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The most popular was the Eucharist
Devotion to saints for help
The Virgin Mary: the most popular saint
Saints' relics were esteemed
Pilgrimage: to Rome, Compostela, Jerusalem
– People were superstitious
• Devoted to many pagan rituals
• Believed in witches
• Reform Movements and Popular Heresies
– Dominicans and Franciscans
• Organized movements of non-cloistered religious
– Dominicans worked primarily as teachers
– Franciscans were primarily social workers
• Worked directly with populace, needy, sick
• Championed spiritual over materialistic values
• Zealously combated heterodox movements
– Popular heresy
• Dominicans became the Church’s police or Inquisition
• Movements of Waldensians and Cathars (Albigensians)
COLONIZATION AND CRUSADES
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Atlantic and Baltic Colonization
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The Vikings
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Christianity in Scandinavia
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Scandinavians turned to Atlantic, 9th/10th centuries
Colonized Iceland and Greenland
Leif Ericsson settled in Canada (Vinland)
Established Dynasty of the Rus in Russia (Kiev)
Established states in Normandy, S. Italy, Holy Land
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Kings of Denmark, Norway converted, 10th c.
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St. Olaf convinced the king, nobles to convert
Colonies in Iceland, Sweden, Finland also converted
Crusading Orders and Baltic Expansion
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Germans launched mass settlement of Eastern lands
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The Teutonic Knights were most active in the Baltic region
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Allowed nobles to conquer, settle lands in east
Formed military-religious orders to assist
Launched crusades against pagan Baltic and Slavic peoples
Settled German peasants, serfs in lands
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Baltic region was absorbed into Christian Europe by late 13th century
Settled German settlers in Estonia, Latvia, Prussia
Allied with the Hansa
The Reconquest (for Christianity) of Sicily and Spain
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The conquest of Southern Italy, Sicily by Normans, 1040 – 1090
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The reconquista of Spain
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Seized lands from the Byzantines, Lombards, Muslims to create a powerful, modern state
Became ally, protector of the Popes; bitter enemies of the Byzantines
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The reconquista began in 11th century after collapse of strong Muslim state
By 1150, conquered half peninsula: leading states were Leon-Castile, Aragon, Catalonia, Portugal
By the 13th century, took almost all the peninsula except Granada
THE CRUSADES
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The Turks
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Pope Urban II
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The first crusade
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Later crusades
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Consequences of the crusades
– Arrived in Middle East in early 11th century; defeated Abbassids and
Byzantines
– Seized much of Byzantine holdings in Anatolia, Muslim Holy Land
– Byzantines asked West for help; Pope called for knights to seize Holy Land,
1095
– Peter the Hermit traveled in Europe and organized a ragtag army
– The campaign was a disaster for the crusaders
– French, Normans organized a respectable military expedition, 1096
– Jerusalem fell to the crusaders, 1099
– Muslims recaptured Jerusalem, 1187
– By the mid-13th century, launched five major crusades which all failed
– 4th crusade (1202-1204) conquered Constantinople, made Schism final
– Facilitated exchange of goods between Muslims, Europe
• Demands for silk, cotton textiles, and spices increased; spread sugar, citrus plants
• Italian merchants sought opportunities for direct trade in Asian markets
– European borrowed heavily from Muslim intellectual knowledge
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Reacquired Aristotle, lost Greek classics
Borrowed Muslim science, mathematics, technology, paper skills
Borrowed Muslim architectural techniques
Helped produce a 12th century European intellectual Renaissance
MAP OF THE CRUSADES