Transcript cycles per second - I Love such things which is available in the World.

Processor
Writer:-Rashedul Hasan
Editor:- Jasim Uddin
Processor
 When entire CPU (both CU & ALU) is contained
on a single tiny silicon chip, it is called
microprocessor.
 Silicon is an element that is widely found in clay
and sand. It is a semiconductor.
 Semiconductor is material whose electrical
properties are intermediate between a good
conductor of electricity and nonconductor of
electricity.
Example of Conductor &
Nonconductor
 An example of good conductor of
electricity is copper in household wiring.
 An example of non conductor of electricity
is the plastic sheath around the wiring.
Microprocessor
chip inside Pentium 4 processor
Inside the Microprocessor
 Arithmetic Logic Unit
 Control Unit
 Registers
Registers
 ALU contain registers. Therefore Register
is a part of CPU not main memory.
 Register is high speed storage area used
to speed up the processing.
 The length of a register equals the number
of bits it can store. For example, if a
register can store 8 bits, will be referred to
8 bit register.
Registers
 Most CPU sold today have 64 bit register.
 It is also called Word size.
 The bigger the word size, the faster the
computer can process the data.
Common Registers.
 Although the number of registers varies
from computer to computer, there are
some registers common to all computer.
They are listed bellow,
 Memory address Register [MAR]: Holds
address of the active memory location.
 Memory Buffer Register [MBR]: Holds
information on its way to and from
memory.
Common Registers.
 Program Control Register [PC] : Holds
address of the next instruction to be
executed.
 Accumulator Register [A] : Accumulates
results and data to be operated upon.
 Instruction Register [I] : holds an
instruction while it is being executed.
 Input/Output Register [I/O] : Communicate
with Input & Output Devices.
System clock rate
Processor Speed.
 Processor performs at incredible speed.
 Every processor contains a system clock which
control how fast the operations within a
computer take place.
 Instruction are fetched, decoded and executed
at proper intervals with intervals timed by a
specific number of clock cycle.
 The clock rate is the fundamental rate in cycles
per second (measured in hertz) at which a
computer performs its most basic operations
such as adding two numbers or transferring a
value from one register to another.
Clock Cycle
 One clock cycle is the time it takes to perform
one operation such as moving a byte of data
from one memory location to another.
 Normally several clock cycles are required to
fetched, decoded and executed a single
program instruction.
 Shorter the clock cycle, faster the processor.
 A single clock cycle typically lasting only a few
nanoseconds in modern microprocessors
Ways of measuring processing
speed.
 Faster clock speeds will result in faster
processing.
 For microcomputer–Megahertz &
Gigahertz
Megahertz: a measure of frequency
equivalent to 1 million cycle [approx] per
second.
for example, 933-MHz Pentium 3
processor can process 933 million cycles
per second.
Ways of measuring processing
speed.
Gigahertz: a billion cycles per second.
 For minicomputers & Mainframes-MIPS:
MIPS stands for million of instruction per
second.
a mainframe can perform at 200-1200 MIPS
 For Supercomputer-Flops:
Flops stands for Floating point operations per
second. A Floating point operation is special
kind of mathematical calculation.
in case of super computer it is expressed as
Megaflops, Gigaflops & Teraflops.
Processor Speed affected by:
 System clock rate = Rate of an electronic pulse
used to synchronize processing.
(Only one action can take place between
pulses.)
 Measured in megahertz (MHz) where 1 MHz =
1 million cycles per second or gigahertz (GHz)
where 1 GHz = 1 billion cycles per second.
 This is what they are talking about if they say a
computer is a 2.4 GHz machine. It's clock rate is
2.4 billion cycles per second.
 Bigger number = faster processing
Architecture & Design of processor
Two main architecture or design for
microprocessor are,
 CISC : Complex Instruction Set Computing
chips, which are used mostly in PCs, can
support a large number of instruction but
at relatively low processing speed.
Architecture & Design of processor
 RISC : Reduced Instruction Set Computing chips, mainly
used mostly in workstation.
 Multi-core designs:
A different approach to improving a computer's
performance is to add extra processors. A multi-core
processor is simply a single chip containing more than
one microprocessor core, effectively multiplying the
potential performance with the number of cores.
From 2007 dual-core processors are widely used in
servers, workstations and PCs while quad-core
processors are now available for high-end applications in
both the home and professional environments.
AMD Athlon Dual core processor
Kinds of Processor.
 Intel type chips : For PC
 About 90% of microprocessor use Intel




type microprocessor.
Are mainly made by the Intel Corporation.
Other manufacturers of this type includes,
AMD
Cyrix
DEC
Kinds of Processor.
 Motorola-Type chips : For Macintoshes
 It is mainly made by Motorola for Apple
Macintoshes computer.
Bus Speed
Are data road ways through which bits are transmitted
within the CPU an between CPU and other
components of motherboard.
Bus Speed
 Bus Speed = the amount of data the CPU can
transmit at a time to main memory and to input
and output devices.
(Any path bits travel is a bus.)
 An 8-bit bus moves 8 bits of data at a time.
Bus width can be 8, 16, 32, 64, or 128 so far.
 Think of it as "How many passengers (bits) can
fit on the bus at once to go from one part of the
computer to another."
 Bigger number = faster transfer of data
Important Things to Know
 You want a nice match between the word size
and the bus size and the clock. It wouldn't do
any good to have a bus that can deliver data
128 bits at a time, if the CPU can only use 8 bits
at a time and has a slow clock speed. A huge
line of data would form, waiting to get off the
bus! When computers gets clogged like that,
bad things can happen to your data. It's like
people waiting to get into the theater. After a
while, some of them may leave!!
Types of BUS
Parallel Bus
Serial Bus
Parallel & Serial Bus
 Buses can be parallel buses, which carry
data words in parallel on multiple wires,
 or serial buses, which carry data in bitserial form.