Transcript Mt Kenya University_Envi Conservation EGE412vs0

Mt Kenya University
• EGE 412: ENVIRONMENTAL CONSERVATION
Credit Hours: 3
Pre-requisites: EGE 122 and EGE 222
Lecturer:
George Eshiamwata
Purpose
An introduction to fundamentals of
environmental and management
Expected Learning Outcomes
1. Discuss the making implementation of
environmental policies; soil, and water
conservation, Forest management, River and other
aquatic environmental conservation.
2. Discuss the Role of National environmental
management authority (NEMA) I National
Development and Planning
Course Content
Environmental conservation and its significance in Kenya;
Policy making and implementation in environmental
conservation;
Soil and water conservation in different environments,
Forests management, River catchments studies, Protected
resources
Land use conflicts;
Aquatic environments (Lakes and marine);
The role of environmental conservation in national
development;
National Environmental Management Authority
Teaching / Learning Methodologies
Lectures; Tutorials; Class discussion
Instructional Materials and
Equipment
Handouts; Chalk board
Course Assessment
Examination - 70%; Continuous Assessments (Exercises
and Tests) - 30%; Total - 100%
Recommended Text Books
Muchina S. J (2009); An Introduction to
Environmental Management; JKF
Asish Ghosh (2008); Environmental Conservation;
Aph Publishing House
Michael d (2005); Environmental Science:
Managining Biological and Physical Resources
Richard T (2002); Environmental Conservations;
Person Educations
Text Books for further Reading
• Journals (2002);
• NEMA Publications
• Michael D (2009); Environmental Science:
Managing Biological and Physical Resources;
Prentice Hall
• William P (2007); Environmental Science: A
Global Concern; McGraw Hill
Environment
• Origin of the term:
• The word derived from the French word
“environ” – some what related to
“encompass” “encircle” etc. It is believed to
have been introduced into the subject by
biologist Jacob Van Erkulin the early 1900
Environment
Many definitions exist:
• The sum total of all surroundings of a living
organism, including natural forces and other
living things, which provide conditions for
development and growth as well as of danger
and damage.
• the air, water, minerals, organisms, and all
other external factors surrounding and
affecting a given organism at any time.
Environment
• the natural surroundings of that organism
which directly or indirectly influences the
growth and development of the organism.
• the surroundings in which an organization
operates including air, water, land and natural
resources, flora, fauna,humans and their inter
relations” – ISO
• is the sum total of all living and non living
factors that compose the surroundings of man
Components of the Environment
• the air, water, minerals, soil, and living
organisms
Components of the Environment
Environment
Physical
environment
(abiotic)
Atmosphere (air)
Hydrosphere
(water)
Lithosphere (land)
Biological
environment
(biotic)
Biosphere=
Flora-producers
Fauna -consumers
Microbialdecomposers
Cultural
environment
Society
Economy
Politics
ENVIRONMENT, ECOLOGY AND ECOSYSTEM
Very interrelated terms
• The natural surroundings of an organism, both living and
physical is its environment
• Ecology is a branch of study of the
interrelationships with the organism and its
environment. The Earth includes a variety of living
things which depend in some way on other living
and nonliving things in its Environment.
Ecology
• Ecology is the study of the relationships between
all organisms and their environment
• The biosphere is the largest ecosystem of
all. It consists of the thin layer of the earth's
surface where all organisms live
• Ecology involves collecting information about
organisms and their environment, looking for
patterns, and seeking to explain these patterns. It
can be confidently established that Environmental
Science is more or less Ecology
• The ecology that takes place in a defined area is
called ecosystem.
Ecosystem
• is a self-sustaining collection
of organisms and their environment. – a dynamic
system of interaction between all of the species
inhabiting an area and the non-living , physical
environment.
• Ecosystems consist of three levels of life:
–Species - the sheer variety of species on Earth
–Ecosystem s - the environments where the species
evolve and live
Ecosystems
• A community - which refers to the
organisms that live in a particular place
such as a forest (residents of a neighborhood)
A habitat - refers to the physical location of
a community (neighborhood).
• Genetic diversity- all the variety of genes
within a species (and ecosystem)
Functions of the natural environment &
relationship with economic activities
Natural Environment
Environmental services
(raw material & energy)
Production
Goods & Services
(recreation, clean
waters, rich wildlife)
Consumption
Residuals
Residuals
Waste Management
Ecosystem services/environmental services include provisioning services, such as food
and water; regulating services, such as flood and disease control; cultural services, such
as spiritual, recreational and cultural benefits; and supporting services, such as nutrient
cycling that maintain the conditions for life on Earth
Environment &n Human well-being
Human well-being is the extent to which individuals
have the ability and the opportunity to live the
kinds of lives they have reason to value.
Environment &n Human well-being
Health is a state of complete physical, mental and social wellbeing,
and not merely the absence of disease or illness. Good health not only
includes being strong and feeling well, but also freedom from
avoidable disease, a healthy physical environment, access to energy,
safe water and clean air. What one can be and do include among
others, the ability to keep fit, minimize health related stress, and
ensure access to medical care.
Material needs relate to access to ecosystem goods-and-services.
The material basis for a good life includes secure and adequate
livelihoods, income and assets, enough food and clean water at all
times, shelter, clothing, access to energy to keep warm and cool,
and access to goods.
Environment &n Human well-being
Security relates to personal and environmental security. It includes
access to natural and other resources, and freedom from violence,
crime and wars (motivated by environmental drivers), as well as
security from natural and human-caused disasters.
Social relations refer to positive characteristics that define interactions
among individuals, such as social cohesion, reciprocity, mutual
respect, good gender and family relations, and the ability to help
others and provide for children.
Increasing the real opportunities that people have to improve their lives requires
addressing all these components. This is closely linked to environmental quality
and the sustainability of ecosystem services.
Environmental issues
1. Water resources
Quantity and quality:Water resources are under
pressure from agricultural chemicals and urban
and industrial wastes, as well as from use for
hydroelectric power e.g. Kenya expects a
shortage of water to pose a problem in the
coming years. Water-quality problems in lakes,
including water hyacinth infestation in Lake
Victoria, have contributed to a substantial
decline in fishing output and endangered fish
species.
Environmental issues
• Forestry
Output from forestry also has declined because of resource
degradation. Overexploitation over the past three decades has
reduced the country’s timber resources by one-half. At present
only 2% of the land remains forested, and an estimated 50km2 of
forest are lost each year. This loss of forest aggravates erosion, the
silting of dams and flooding, and the loss of biodiversity.
• Mau forest, coastal forests etc
• Forest depletion and livelihoods, quality of living, ecosystem
services (flooding, erosion, global warming)
Environmental issues
• Wildlife
There are a wide variety of wildlife species in Kenya,
whose habitats are threatened by encroachment of
man species that are threatened e.g. Birds,
mammals, plants, fish etc
Environmental issues
• Erosion is the removal of solids (sediment,
soil, rock and other particles) in the natural
environment. It usually occurs due to
transport by wind, water, or ice; by downslope creep of soil and other material under
the force of gravity; or by living organisms,
such as burrowing animals, in the case of
bioerosion.
Environmental issues
• Erosion
The process of chemical or physical breakdown of
the minerals in the rocks, although the two
processes may occur concurrently. Erosion is a
noticeable intrinsic natural process but in many
places it is increased by human land use. Poor
land use practices include deforestation,
overgrazing, unmanaged construction activity
and road-building..
Environmental issues
• Erosion
Land that is used for the production of
agricultural crops generally experiences a
significant greater rate of erosion than that of
land under natural vegetation. This is
particularly true if tillage is used, which
reduces vegetation cover on the surface of the
soil and disturbs both soil structure and plant
roots that would otherwise hold the soil in
place.
Environmental issues
• Erosion: However, improved land use practices
can limit erosion, using techniques such as
terrace-building, conservation tillage
practices, and tree planting.
A certain amount of erosion is natural and, in
fact, healthy for the ecosystem. For example,
gravels continuously move downstream in
watercourses.
Environmental issues
• Erosion is the removal of solids (sediment,
soil, rock and other particles) in the natural
environment. It usually occurs due to
transport by wind, water, or ice; by downslope creep of soil and other material under
the force of gravity; or by living organisms,
such as burrowing animals, in the case of
bioerosion.
Environmental issues
• Excessive erosion, however, does cause
problems, such as receiving water
sedimentation, ecosystem damage and
outright loss of soil
Environmental issues
• Desertification
The degradation of land in arid and dry subhumid areas, resulting primarily from manmade activities and influenced by climatic
variations. It is principally caused by
overgrazing, overdrafting of groundwater and
diversion of water from rivers for human
consumption and industrial use, all of these
processes fundamentally driven by
overpopulation.
Environmental issues
• Desertification: A major impact of
desertification is biodiversity loss and loss of
productive capacity, for example, by transition
from land dominated by shrublands to nonnative grasslands. In Kenya, if current trends
of soil degradation continue, we will be able
to feed only 25% of our population by 2025
Loss of Species
•Ecosystem Services
•Vultures
•elephants
•Tourism (also related to habitat loss)
•Loss of revenue
•Loss of employment
•Economic stagnation
Environmental issues
• All these issues compromise the ability of the
environment to offer ecosystem services: the
services provided by the environment/ecosystem
and ecological processes including regulation of
water flows and maintenance of water quality, the
formation of soil, prevention of soil erosion, and
nutrient cycling that maintains soil fertility,
degradation of wastes and pollution, pest and
pathogen control, pollination and climate regulation
through carbon storage and sequestration
Environmental conservation
• maintenance of the environment, maintenance of the
habitat, preservation of the environs, protection of the
environment
• Conservation: The protection, preservation, management, or
restoration of natural environments and the ecological
communities that inhabit them. Conservation is generally held
to include the management of human use of natural
resources for current public benefit and sustainable social and
economic utilization.
• Environmental conservation or protection is a practice of
protecting the environment, on individual, organizational or
governmental level, for the benefit of the natural
environment and (or) humans.
Environmental conservation
• Environmental protection definition includes all available
practices used to protect our environment, whether on
individual, organizational or global (international) level. This
basically means that each and every one of us can do
something to protect our environment but of course, global
actions are the ones that would help our environment the
most.
Importance of environmental conservation
• Natural environment = air, rivers, lakes,
oceans, land & biological life
• Three main functions:
– Resource supplier e.g. extract raw materials and
energy
– Life-support system
– Waste assimilator
Importance of environmental conservation
• Both the formation & maintenance of gaseous
composition of the air are sustained by the
living components of the biosphere (plants &
micro-organisms). e.g. oxygen produced by
plants
• Soil fertility: is one of the essentials for the
existence of mankind is fully determined by
the life activities of great many living creatures
of the soil (invertebrates, fungi, bacteria, algae
Importance of environmental conservation
• Purity & quality of water are as a result of
activities of living creatures (destruction of the
ever-increasing amount of pollutants and
foreign or natural waste compounds are
carried out by biodegrading organisms
– Environment is therefore an assimilator of wastes
from human activities
• The diversity of living nature is an
indispensable source of all our food (proteins,
fats, carbohydrates), top quality materials for
clothing (wool, cotton, silk, linen ) & footwear
(leather), cellulose
Importance of environmental conservation
• The potential value of every aspect of the
environment is important e.g. unique
characteristics & properties which may be
potentially utilized by man now or in the
future
• Man himself is a sort of ecosystem – each
physiologically and physically connected with
an immense number of species and the
environment
Importance of environmental conservation
• The diversity of forms of living nature is vitally
important & essential for the formation,
development and maintenance of man’s
spiritual & mental well-being
• The position of man in the environment & his
power over other living things demand a
better recognition of being environmental
stewards
Importance of environmental conservation &
national economy
• Environmental conservation not just about animals It is in fact
essential to our own survival.
• Importance to agriculture
– Agriculture depends on the environment and we depend on
agriculture. This is obvious in countries where the economies depend
on agriculture but applies to all. A country’s wealth might come from
something else but its population needs to eat. Conserving the
environment and preventing soil erosion, desertification, and flooding
is essential. Unsustainable farming techniques not only impact natural
ecosystems but also ultimately make farming itself impossible.
•
Importance of environmental
conservation
• Importance to fishing
– While much of our food comes from agriculture, the
oceans are also an essential source. Communities
worldwide depend upon seafood. Marine conservation is
vital to protect human food supplies as well as marine
animals. Looking after the seas doesn’t just mean saving
big, glamorous animals from extinction, important as this
is. At the moment there are serious conservation issues
affecting the oceans, including over fishing and pollution,
bleaching of coral reefs. The complex, interlinked
ecosystems need conserving in our own self-interest.
•
Importance of environmental
conservation
• Importance to Tourism
• Second foreign exchange earner
• Recreation & enjoyment of the beauty and
payment for it as foreign exchange or
revenues from tourism
•
Importance of environmental
conservation
• Importance to energy sector
– Hydro-electric power is generated from water hence the
destruction of forests will interfere with water flow in
rivers as a result of degraded water catchments, water
abstraction
– The economy depends significantly on energy (industrial
use and domestic use)
Importance of environmental
conservation
• Importance to infrastructure
– Infrastructure is important for economic growth but we
destroy the environment leading to erosion and land
slides, over flooding thus interfering with roads and
infrastructure in general,
– The economy depends significantly on infrastructure and
hence is likely to affect economic growth and development
Importance of environmental
conservation
• Importance to climate
– Human activities impact the climate, and this affects all
life. Droughts, floods, and extremes of heat and cold, are
caused by global warming, which is almost certainly linked
to greenhouse gas emissions. Some countries are already
experiencing disastrous effects, while others it is just, for
the moment, inconvenient. There are other, more local,
climate changes also caused by not treating the
environment with respect. For example rainfall is affected
by deforestation. Conservation of natural environments
should be done not just for their own sake, but also for
that of the world as a whole.
•
Policy
• Politics: (1) The basic principles by which a government
is guided.
(2) The declared objectives that a government or party
seeks to achieve and preserve in the interest of
national community.
• Management: The set of basic principles and associated
guidelines, formulated and enforced by the governing
body of an organization, to direct and limit its actions in
pursuit of long-term goals
Global Concern towards
environmental conservation
• Loss of environmental services and impact on
economies, livelihoods, stability, species extinction
– The loss of species, will lead to loss breakdown of
biogeochemical process, ecosystem and ecological processes,
economies, human well-being and hunger
– Many insects, which play essential roles as decomposers and
pollinators, are threatened: between 100k and 500k species of
insects are projected to become extinct in the next 300 years,
a rate that equals losing 7 to 30 species per week (Mawdsley
and Stork, 1995).
– Vicious circle: There is a clear cause-and-effect between
poverty & environmental degradation & poverty is an habitual
cause of environmental degradation & undermines people’s
capacity to manage resources well & sustainably
Some facts (From USAID, 2005)
• Ecosystems and habitats are also threatened and are being lost at
alarming levels:
– More than 2/3of the area of 2 of the world’s 14 major terrestrial
biomes and more than half of the area of 4 other biomes had
been converted, primarily to agriculture, by 1990 (Millennium
Ecosystem Assessment, 2005).
– 1/5 of all tropical rain forest cover was lost between 1960 and
1990, according to the World Resources Institute (WRI).
– 5% of the world’s wetlands habitat has been destroyed over the
past 100 years (WRI, 2003).
– The world's coastal mangroves, a vital nursery ground for
countless species, are also at risk; 50% have already been cleared
(WRI, 2000-2001).
– 20% of the world’s coral reefs were lost and an additional 20%
degraded in the last several decades of the twentieth century
(Millennium Ecosystem Assessment, 2005).
Policy making at Global levels
Multilateral Environmental Agreements and
Kenya
• See notes and print out
Environmental policies in 3rd world
• Not coherent and rationalized partly because:
– poverty and socioeconomic needs are often seen
as more pressing than the need for environmental
controls
• But caveat: we can not develop or alleviate poverty
without the environment e.g Mau forest issues and the
Sondu Miriu power, drying of Rift valley lakes, flooding
in Budalangi, hunger, scramble and clan fighting
because of pasture and water
Why Kenya has not been effective in formulating and
implementing environmental policies
• lack of institutional capacity and resources to mobilize
and link activities effectively within and between sectors,
• specific environmental sectoral laws that do not
adequately articulate the links between development,
population and environmental concerns; and more often
conflict with the EMCA, and
• limited budgetary provisions to finance the effective
implementation of environmental programs set out in
national development plans.
Policies
Kenya: Policy, laws
• In Kenya, main functions thro government ministries and
departments in a sectoral manner leading to gaps, overlaps
duplication of efforts and conflicts of mandates
• Some sectors include: Agricultural,Livestock, Water, Health,
Energy, Mining, Human settlement, Industry, Wildlife,
Forestry, Fisheries
• Many national policy papers and legislation:
– Sessional paper No. 6 on Environment and Development (1999),
Forest Act (2005), Mining Act (Cap 306), Water Act of 2002, Kenya
Forestry master Plan, EMCA (1999) The National Environment Action
Plan (NEAP 1994) and the Kenya Forestry Policy, Irrigation Act (Cap 347
of 1967), Timber Act (Cap 386), Grass Fires Actetc some of which are
very outdated and require review and Harmonization)
Instruments for Environmental Policy
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Environmental Impact Assessment
Environmental legislation
Economic instruments
Environmental standards & indicators
Precautionary approach/principle
International collaboration
Environmental policy in Kenya
•
In order to strengthen coherence within the environmental sector and
addressing key environmental and development challenges facing her, Kenya is in
the process of developing an environmental policy which aims to integrate
environment into the wider economic context, addressing trade- offs between
economic growth and poverty reduction, and environmental sustainability.
•
The Environmental Policy will complement Environmental Management and
Coordination Act (EMCA 1999)
Environmental legislation
• Environmental Management and Coordination Act
(EMCA 1999)
– provides for the establishment of an appropriate legal and
institutional framework for the management of the environment
and related matters.
– is a framework environmental legislation that establishes
appropriate legal and institutional mechanisms for the
management of the environment.
– provides for improved legal and administrative co-ordination of
the diverse sectoral initiatives in order to improve the national
capacity for the management of the environment.
– Is in recognition that the environment constitutes the foundation
of national economic, social, cultural and spiritual advancement.
Environmental legislation
• Environmental Management and Coordination Act (EMCA 1999)
– Enacted and came into effect in 1999
– Saw the formation of NEMA (NB: we wont therefore
discuss NEMA again as a final topic because this is
enough about it)
EMCA and Environmental Conservation
1. Guides the co-ordination of environmental planning
•guides co-ordination at various levels which are responsible for the preparation
of the action plans which contain an analysis of the natural resources with an
indication of change in their distribution and quantity over time, analytical profile of
various uses and value of the natural resources
•sets out operational guidelines for the planning and management of the
environment and natural resources.
EMCA and Environmental Conservation
2. establishes committees that ensure ongoing projects have no
negative impacts
• committees in consultation with the relevant lead agencies
monitor all environmental phenomena with a view to making
an assessment of any possible changes in the environment
and their possible impacts and also monitor the operation of
any industry, project or activity with a view of determining its
immediate and long-term effects on the environment
EMCA and Environmental Conservation
3. Provides guidance for the formation of quality and standards
committees that ensures cleaner production with respect to
air, water, soil and biodiversity
• The Standards and Enforcement Review Committee deals with
the issues of water and air quality.
– water quality the committee gives advice on how to establish criteria
and procedures for the measurement of water quality and
recommends the minimum water quality standards for all the waters
of Kenya and for different uses, including:-drinking water; water for
industrial purposes; water for agricultural purposes, water for
recreational purposes; Water for fisheries and wildlife,
EMCA and Environmental Conservation
4. provides guidelines for orders for restoration, conservation
and environmental easement
• An environmental conservation order may be imposed to:
– Preserve flora and fauna
– Preserve the quality and flow of water in a dam, lake, river or aquifer,
– Preserve any outstanding geological, physiological, ecological, archaeological,
or historical features of the burdened land;
– Preserve scenic view;
– Preserve open space;
– Permit persons to walk in a defined path across the burdened land;
– Preserve the natural contours and features of the burdened land;
– Prevent or restrict the scope of any activity on the burdened land which has as
its object the mining and working of minerals or aggregates;
– Prevents or restrict the scope of any agricultural activity on the
abandoned/overused land;
– Create or maintain migration corridors for wildlife
EMCA and Environmental Conservation
5. provides the ways for entering both regional and
international agreements and treaties
• Kenya is signatory to various international and regional
treaties and agreements which must always be respected and
implemented. To this effect EMCA 1999 provides the required
legal structures for entering into such commitments. The
country participates in various conferences on climate change
including the recent UNFCCC COP17 in Durban where various
countries were represented.
• CAT 1: 30 Marks
• Refer to the Conventions and see which of them is Kenya a
signatory to /State Party and how has Kenya tried to
domesticate global; environmental policies, name some of
the state agencies mandated to spearhead this process of
domestication
EMCA and Environmental Conservation
6. EMCA provides powers to appoint environmental assessors
and inspectors
• The environmental assessors work also involves the constant
monitoring of activities deemed to have massive impacts on
the environment
7. EMCA defines the offences related to the environment
• The Act defines the various offences related to the
environment and prescribes measures to be taken in case of
contravention of the laid down regulations governing the
environment. Offenders are entitled to appear in an
environmental court and answer questions pertaining
disregard for the environment
EMCA and Environmental Conservation
8. Stipulates guidelines concerning environmental impact
assessment
• Before a project is implemented, its potential impact should
be assessed so as to determine positive or negative impact in
order to take necessary precaution through;
– Formation of technical advisory committees on environmental impact
assessment
– Application for an EIA license
– Further EIA
– Submission of fresh EIA report after license is issued
– Transfer of EIA license
Summary of regulations
Specific highlights of EMCA
i) Highlights of the Environmental Impact Assessment and Audit
Regulations (EIA/EA) - Legal Notice No.121 of 2003
• What is Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA)
– is a critical examination of the effects of a project on the environment.
– The goal of an EIA is to ensure that decisions on proposed projects and
activities are environmentally sustainable. An EIA is conducted in order to
identify impacts of a project on the environment, predict likely changes on
the environment as a result of the development, evaluate the impacts of
the various alternatives on the project and propose mitigation measures
for the significant negative impacts of the project on the environment.
– The EIA also generates baseline data for monitoring and evaluating impacts
during the project cycle as well as highlighting environmental issues with a
view to guiding policy makers, planners, stakeholders and government
agencies to make environmentally and economically sustainable decisions.
– It seeks to minimize adverse impacts on the environment and reduces risks.
EIA also identifies measures to mitigate the negative impacts while
maximizing on the positive ones.
Specific highlights of EMCA
Environmental Audit (EA)
• is the systematic documentation, periodic and objective evaluation
of activities and processes of an ongoing project.
• The goal of EA is to establish if proponents are complying with
environmental requirements and enforcing legislation.
• The purpose of EA is to determine the extent to which the
activities and programs conform to the approved environmental
management plan.
• A comprehensive EA ensures a safe and healthy environment at all
stages of project operations and decommissioning.
Specific highlights of EMCA
ii) Highlights of Water Quality Regulations, 2006 (Legal notice No.
121)
• Water Quality Regulations apply to water used for domestic,
industrial, agricultural, and recreational purposes; water used for
fisheries and wildlife purposes, and water used for any other
purposes. Different standards apply to different modes of usage.
These regulations provide for the protection of lakes, rivers,
streams, springs, wells and other water sources.
• The objective of the regulations is to protect human health and
the environment. The effective enforcement of the water quality
regulations will lead to a marked reduction of water-borne
diseases and hence a reduction in the health budget.
•
Specific highlights of EMCA
ii) Highlights of Water Quality Regulations, 2006 (Legal notice No.
121)
• The regulations also provide guidelines and standards for the
discharge of poisons, toxins, noxious, radioactive waste or other
pollutants into the aquatic environment in line with the Third
Schedule of the regulations. The regulations have standards for
discharge of effluent into the sewer and aquatic environment.
While it is the responsibility of the sewerage service providers to
regulate discharges into sewer lines based on the given
specifications, NEMA regulates discharge of all effluent into the
aquatic environment.
• The regulations provide for the creation of a buffer zone for
irrigation schemes of at least fifty (50) metres in width between
the irrigation scheme and the natural water body. Standards for
irrigation water are given in schedule nine of the regulations.
Specific highlights of EMCA
Waste Management Regulations
• Referred to as Environmental Management and Co-ordination
(Waste Management) Regulations, 2006
• Waste Management Regulations are meant to streamline the
handling, transportation and disposal of various types of waste.
• the aim of the Waste Management Regulations is to protect
human health and the environment. Currently, different types of
waste are dumped haphazardly posing serious environmental and
health concerns. The regulations place emphasis on waste
minimization, cleaner production and segregation of waste at
source.
• Please discuss the challenges we are facing in waste
management in Kenya
Specific highlights of EMCA
iv) Highlights of the Waste Management Regulations, 2006 (Legal
Notice No.121)
• The regulations have classified various types of waste and
recommended appropriate disposal methods for each waste type.
Under the Waste Management Regulations, NEMA licenses
transporters, incinerators, landfills, composers, recyclers and
transfer stations. Facilities to be licensed include local authorities,
transporters and handlers of various types of waste. The licensing
employs a risk-based approach by concentrating on facilities
considered to pose a high risk to the environment.
Specific highlights of EMCA
v) Highlights of the Controlled Substances Regulations, 2007 (Legal
Notice No.73 of 2007)
• defines controlled substances and provides guidance on how to
handle them. This regulation mandates NEMA to monitor the
activities of persons handling controlled substances, in
consultation with relevant line ministries and departments, to
ensure compliance with the set requirements. Under these
regulations, NEMA will be publishing a list of controlled substances
and the quantities of all controlled substances imported or
exported within a particular. The list will also indicate all persons
holding licenses to import or export controlled substances, with
their annual permitted allocations.
• Which convention (s) does this apply to???
Specific highlights of EMCA
v) contd: Highlights of the Controlled Substances Regulations, 2007
(Legal Notice No.73 of 2007)
• The regulations stipulate that controlled substances must be
clearly labelled with among other words, “Controlled SubstanceNot ozone friendly’’) to indicate that the substance or product is
harmful to the ozone layer.
Specific highlights of EMCA
v) Highlights on Draft Air Quality Regulations, 2008
• referred to as “The Environmental Management and Coordination
(Air Quality) Regulations, 2008”.
• The objective is to provide for prevention, control and abatement
of air pollution to ensure clean and healthy ambient air. It provides
for the establishment of emission standards for various sources
such as mobile sources (e.g. motor vehicles) and stationary
sources (e.g. industries) as outlined in the Environmental
Management and Coordination Act, 1999.
• Exemptions
The following operations (provided they are not used for disposal of refuse), are
exempt from these regulations:
(a) Back-burning to control or suppress wildfires;
(b) Fire fighting rehearsals or drills conducted by the Fire Service Agencies;
(c) Traditional and cultural burning of savanna grasslands;
(d) Burning for purposes of public health protection;
Forest Act 2005 Environmental conservation
– Became operation in Feb 2007
– Its operations informed by other policies/legislation e.g. the draft
Forest Policy, The Kenya Forestry Master Plan and EMCA 1999 &
also bound by other statutes related to natural resource
management in Kenya and international conventions
– Opened commercial plantation for lease arrangement by
interested groups
– Compliance and enforcement strategies on forest cases
(prevention of illegal acts, detection of change in cover,
suppression of illegal acts
– Overall spirit is devolution of authority and responsibilities in
management of forests and promotion /strong emphasis on
partnerships thro increased access to benefits to the
communities as part of sustanaible use
• Participatory forest management – cooperative behavior among users of
the resource (CFAs formed to avoid free rider/tragedy of the commons
Vision 2030 & Environment
• Recognizes that Environment, water, sanitation, housing is
critical for sustainable human development and economic
growth
• Recognizes the important role of nature-based sectors for
country’s economy to grow at 10%p.a. This is also because,
this growth is unchecked may also cause considerable strain
on the environment by the depletion of resources and
production of pollutants and waste (e.g. 60% pop expected to
live in urban/cities hence an urban challenge)
• Recognizes linkages between poverty and environmental
degradation e.g
– Poverty results in situations of environmental stress thro overuse,
misue and abuse and resultant environmental degradation excerbates
poverty even further
Vision 2030 & Environment
Outlines environmental situation in terms of 6 areas:
i.
Sustainable management of natural resources (water towers, etc)
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ii.
Demand for farm land and forest products
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iii.
iv.
v.
vi.
Degradation of the 5 water towers due to agricultural encroachment and agri-expansion a threat
Water situation threatened leading to poor water quantity and quality, recurring flooding
logging
Acknowledges rich ecosystem and biodiversity for socio-economic and cultural benefits
Wild animals in their natural habitats
Medication and hazardous waste
Climate change and desertification
Harnessing of strategic natural resources
Soil and Water Conservation
References:
1.Soil and Water Conservation Engineering, by Glenn O.
Schwab et. al
2. Michael, A.M.: Irrigation: Theory and Practice
3. Design of Small Dams: USDA: Bureau of Land
Reclamation
4. Soil Conservation: N.W. Hudson
5. Field Engineering for Agricultural Development: N.W.
Hudson.
Introduction
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Measures that provide for the management of water and soil
Conservation practices involves the soil, the plant and the climate, each of which is
of utmost importance.
The engineering approach to soil and water conservation problems involves the
physical integration of soil, water and plants in the design of a co-ordinated water
management
The engineering problems involved in soil and water conservation may be divided
into the six following phases:
 Erosion control
 Drainage
 Irrigation
 Flood control
 Moisture conservation and
 Water resource development
The conservation of these vital resources implies utilization without waste so as to make possible a high
level of production which can be continued indefinately.
Soil and water conservation
Soil and water conservation issues
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Deforestation
Overgrazing
Increased abstraction of water
Soil erosion
Biodiversity loss
Pressure on lower agro-ecological zones
Human-wildlife conflict
Lack of alternative incomes
Types of Erosion
Two major types of erosion
 Geological erosion
 Accelerated erosion
Geological erosion: includes soil-forming as well as soil eroding processes
which maintain the soil in a favorable balance.
Accelerated erosion: includes the deterioration and loss of soil as a result
of man’s activities. Although, soil removal are recognized in both
cases, only accelerated erosion is considered in conservation activities.
The forces involved in accelerated erosion are:
1. Attacking forces which remove and transport the soil particles and
2. Resisting forces which retard erosion.
Soil erosion by water
Water erosion is the removal of soil from the lands surface by running water
including runoff from melted snow and ice. Water erosion is sub-divided
into raindrop, sheet, rill, gully and stream channel erosion.
Major Factors Affecting Erosion by Water
1. Climate, 2. Soil, 3. Vegetation and 4. Topography
Climate: - Precipitation, temperature, wind, humidity and solar radiation
Temperature and wind: - evident through their effect on evaporation and
transpiration. However, wind also changes raindrop velocities and angle of
impact. Humidity and solar radiation are less directly involved since they
are associated with temperature.
Soil:
Physical properties of soil affects the infiltration capacity of the soil.
The extend to which it can be dispersed and transported. These properties
which influence soil include:
Soil erosion by water
Water erosion is the removal of soil from the lands surface by running water
including runoff from melted snow and ice. Water erosion is sub-divided
into raindrop, sheet, rill, gully and stream channel erosion.
Major Factors Affecting Erosion by Water
1. Climate, 2. Soil, 3. Vegetation and 4. Topography
Climate: - Precipitation, temperature, wind, humidity and solar radiation
Temperature and wind: - evident through their effect on evaporation and
transpiration. However, wind also changes raindrop velocities and angle of
impact. Humidity and solar radiation are less directly involved since they
are associated with temperature.
Soil:
Physical properties of soil affects the infiltration capacity of the soil.
The extend to which it can be dispersed and transported. These properties
which influence soil include:
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Soil structure
Texture
Organic matter
Moisture content
Density or compactness
Chemical and biological characteristics
Vegetation
Major effect of vegetation in reducing erosion are:

Interception of rainfall
 Retardation of erosion by decrease of surface velocity
 Physical restraint of soil movement
 Improvement of aggregation and porosity of the soil by roots
and plants residue
 Increase biological activities
 Transpiration – decrease soil moisture resulting in increased
storage capacity.
These vegetative influences vary with the season, crops, degree
of maturity, soil & climate as well as with kind of vegetative
materials namely: roots, plant tops, plant residue
Topography
Features that influence erosion are:
 degree of slope
Length of slope
Size and shape of the watershed
Straight
Complex
Concave
Convex.
Raindrop characteristics
• The relationship between erosion and rain fall momentum and
energy id determined by raindrop mass, size distribution, shapE,
velocity and direction. The characterization and measurement of
these individual factors demand the utmost ingenuity and
precision.
• The resistance of a soil to erosion depends on many factors and
so to measure erodibility numerically an assessment has to be
made of each factor.
• -nature of soil
-slope of
land
-kind of crop.
Erosivity-is the aggressiveness or potential ability of rain to
cause erosion.
Erodibility-is
the vulnerability or susceptibility of the soil to erosion.
Factors influencing erodibility
• Two groups of factors.
• 1.physical features of the soil. i.e what kind of soil
• 2.treatment of the soil . i.e what is done with it. the part
concerned with treatment has much the greater effect. And is
also most difficult to access. i.e average increase in soil loss
per unit increase in E I.
These is a great deal of experimental evidence to suggest
a link between erosive power and the mass and velocity of
falling drops.
Ellison(1944).
Soil detachment and transportation
• The process of soil erosion involves soil detachment and soil
transportation .
Generally, soil detachability increases as the size of the
soil particles increase and soil transportability increases with a
decrease in particle size.
• detachment causes damage because:
1. The soil particles are removed from the soil mass and thus
easily transported.
2. The five materials and plant nutrients are removed.
3. Seeds may be separated and washed out of the soil.
Sheet erosion
Uniform removal of soil in thin layers from sloping land-resulting
from sheet or overland flow occurring in thin layers. minute
rilling takes place almost simultaneously with the first
detachment and movement of soil particles. the constant
meander and change of position of these microscopic rills.
Rill erosion
Removal of soil by water from small but well defined channels
or streamlets where there is a concentration of overland flow.
Obviously,rill erosion occurs when these channels have
become sufficiently large and stable to be readily seen.
Gully erosion
Gully erosion produces channels larger then rills. These Channels
carry water during and immediately after rain.
Principles of Gulley erosion:
The rate of gully erosion depends primarily
• on the runoff producing characteristics of the watershed
• the drainage area
• soil characteristics
• the alignment
• size and shape of gully
• the slope in the channel.
Land use
• Very suitable  land classification.
• Fairly suitable  according to suitability factor.
• Not suitable  a particular crop.
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Land capability classification.
The type of soil.
Depth of soil.
Texture.
Land slope.
Past erosion on the land.
Soil erosion by wind
Wind erosion is more frequent when the mean annual rainfall is
low.
Major factor that affects soil erosion by wind are:
1. climate
2. Soil characteristics
3. Vegetation
climate:
• Rainfall affects soil moisture.
• Temperature humidity.
• Wind.
Wind characteristics that affects soil erosion.
• Duration.
• Turbulent of the wind (velocity).
For any given soil condition the amount the amount of soil
which will be blown depends on two factors:
• The wind velocity.
• The roughness of the soil surface.
Soil:
factors  soil texture.
 density of soil particle and density of soil mass.
 organic matter content.
 soil moisture.
Vegetation:
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height of vegetation.
density of cover.
types of vegetation.
seasonal distribution of vegetation.
Control of wind erosion.
Two major types of wind erosion control consist of
1. Those measures that reduce surface wind velocity(vegetation
tilling soil after rain)
2. Those that affect soil characteristics such as:
 conservation of moisture and tillage.
 contouring (teracing)
generally  vegetative measure
 tillage practices
 mechanical methods.
Damages done by wind
1.
crop damage
 particularly at seeding stage .
 expose of land use.
2. The change in soil texture
3. Health.
4. Damage to properties (road and building).
Contouring,stip cropping and tillage.
• One of the base engineering practices in conservation farming
is the adjustment of tillage and crop management from uphill
to downhill to contour opertions contouring,strip cropping
and terracing are important conservation practices for
controlling water erosion.
Surface roughness, ridges, depression and related
physical characteristics influenceing depression storage of
precipitation.
contouring
When plow furrows, planter furrows,and cultivation furrows
run uphill and downhill then forms natural channels in which
runoff accumulates. As the slope of these furrows increases
the velocity of the water movement increases with resulting
destructive erosion.
In contouring tillage operations are carried out as nearly
as practicals on the contour. a guide line is laid out for eash
plow land and the back furrows or dead furrows are plowed
on these lines.
• Disadvantage: is used alone on steeper slopes or under
conditions of high rainfall intensity and soil erodibility, these is
an increased hazard of gullying because row breaks may
release the stored water.
• Strip cropping: strip cropping consist of a series of alternate
strips of various types of crops laid out so that all tillage and
crop management practices are performed across the slope or
on the contour.
The three general types of strip cropping are:
1. Contour strip cropping with layout and tillage held closely
with the exact contour and with the crops following a
definite rotational sequence.
2. Field strip cropping with strips of a uniform width placed
across the general slope.
3. Buffer strip cropping with strips of some grass or legume
crop laid out between contour strips of crops in the regular
rotations, then may be even or irregular in width.
when contour strip cropping is combined with contour tillage or
teuracing, it effectively divides the length of the slope,checks
checks the velocity of runoff,filters out soil from the runoff
water and facilitates absorbtion of rain.
strip cropping layout
The three general methods of laying out strip cropping are:
1. Both edges of the strips on the contour
2. One or more strips of uniform width laid out from a key or
base contour line.
3. Alternate uniform width and variable width correction or
buffer strips.
methods of layout vary with topography and with each
individual’s preference.
Tillage practices: tillage is the mechanical manipulation of
the soil to provide soil conditions suited to the growth of
crops, the control of weeds and for the maintenance of
infiltration capacity and aeration. Indiscriminate tillage, tillage
without thought of topography , soil climate and crop
conditions will lead to soil deterioration through erosion and
loss of structure.
TERRACING
This is a method of erosion control accomplished by
constructing broad chennels across the slope of rolling land.
Reasons for constructing terace
If surface runoff is allowed to flow unimpeded down the slope
of arable land these is a danger that its volume or velocity
or both may build up to the points where I is not only carries
the soil dislodged by the splash erosion but also has a
scouring action of its own.
various names given to this techniques are:
 terraces

functions
• To decrease the length of the hillside slope , thereby reducing
sheet and rill erosion.
• Preventing formation of gullies and retaining runoff in areas
of inadequate precipitation.
• In dry regions such conservation of moisture is important in
the control of wind erosion
Forest Management
• Forest management is the application of modern business
methods and technical handling of forestry resources and soil
to produce maximum forest products
• Forestry is the science and practice of managing trees and
forests to provide diverse range of benefits
• Conservation and sustanable use of forests can only occur if
forest habitat is maintained. The sustaianable management,
use and conservatio of natural forest ecosystem to maintain
their health, flows of timber and non-timber products, nonmaterial values and benefits and the ecological services they
may provide
Products from commercial trees
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Nuts and fruits
Oils, decorations, extracts
Resins, gums, turpentine
Mulch, tannin, drugs, oils, dyes
Sugar, syrup
Veneer, charcoal, pitch, pine oil
Poles, posts
Paper, paper products, wall boards
Lumber, timber, wastes,
Resins
Medicinal plants
Relationship between forests and
other natural resources
 Forests play important roles in the water cycle
 As water circulates from oceans to rivers to lakes, the forest filters the rain
as it falls and serve as storage areas. A forest regulates water flow, making it
possible for fish and other animal and plant life to survive
 Forests filter rain and help reduce the erosion of soils
 Trees and shrubs are responsible for removing much of the pollutant
materials from the air and water run off. They also help reduce the harmful
effects of excess fertilizer that enters underground water systems.
 Forests and living organisms have many relationships
 Algae, fungi, mosses, and other plants make their homes in the forest.
Forests also provide shelter, food, protection and nesting sites for many
species of birds and fish. Shade provided by the forest maintains proper
water temperatures for the growth and reproduction of aquatic life.
 Forests and wildlife relationships greatly vary
 Depending on species, the wildlife in each forest region varies due to
climate and harvesting times
Relationship between forests and
other natural resources
 Forest diversity
 Biodiversity is the wealth of al life on earth,
which can be considered at 3 inter-linked levels:
genetic, species and ecosystems
 It is defined as the variability among living
organisms from all sources including terrestrial,
marine and other aquatic ecosystems and the
ecological complexes of which they are part,
including a diversity within species, between
species and among ecosystems
Relationship between forests and
other natural resources
 Forest diversity
 Considered in terms of composition, structure
and function & characterized by:
 Very high species richness (50% of all terrestrial
species in the world found in rain forests
 Multi-layered structure with giant emergent trees,
forest floor, herbs, epiphytic herbs, woody lianas
and dark understorey
 Often infertile soils and rapid recycling of plant and
soil nutrients
 Long time scales over which patterns of
regeneration and reproduction take place
Tree Growth and Physiology
 Trees use carbon dioxide and water to do what?
 Manufacture simple sugars in their leaves which use additional carbon dioxide,
oxygen, hydrogen to convert simple sugars into complex sugars and starches.
Nitrogen and minerals found in the soil are used to manufacture proteins which
are the building blocks for growth and reproduction.
 How does a new tree grow?
 Seeds, stumps, roots, tree parts
 Roots and Shoots
 Extend through cell division and elongation. Tree roots, stems and trunks grow in
diameter by adding cell layers near their outer surfaces. This growth is called the
cambium and can be seen as the rings in a cross-section of tree.
 Water and Minerals
 Water and minerals are taken up through the xylem which is located just inside of
the cambium. Outside of the cambium is the phloem or inner bark which carries
food manufactured in the leaves to the rest of the tree. Each year the tree grows
new xylem, phloem and cambium as well as heartwood. Heartwood is the
inactive core that gives the tree strength and rigidity.
Forest management
 Types of forest cover:
 Indigenous
 Naturally regenerating forest
 Planted/managed forests of indigenous or exotic
species
NB: Not all forests are equally important for the
maintenance of biodiversity
Forest management
• Type of Vegetation % of total area of Kenya
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Indigenous Forests 2.1%
Plantation 3%
Woodland 3.7%
Bushland 42.9%
Wooded Grassland 18.5%
Mangrove 1%
Grassland 2.1%
Desert 13.7%
Farmland and Urban Development 16.5%
• Total 100%
Forest management
• Forest type Area (ha.) % of total closed
canopy forests
– Indigenous forests 1.24 million ha. 88.57%
– Plantation forests 1.06 million ha 11.43%
– Subtotal 1.40 million ha. 100%
Forest management
 Aims of forest management
 Ensure high quality freshwater at acceptable flow rates, minimize erosion
and movement of soil, stabilize hillsides, thro forest management in
watersheds
 Conserve a representative sample of biological region (biome, habitat) in
a state relatively unaltered by modern man and avoid the loss of species
and erosion of genetic diversity
 Maintain areas and features that are essential for ecological processes
(migrations, biological cycles and rehabilitate degraded areas
 Protect sites of cultural/archeological importance
 Ensure the supply of wood and non-wood products to satisfy
local/national/international demand
 Provide facilities and opportunities for tourism, recreation,
environmental education, research and monitoring
 Retain a maximum choice of land use options for the future
 Carbon sequenstration
Forest management
 Forest management activities
 Foster public-private partnerships for sustainable management of forest
products (Timber and non-timber forest products (NTFPs)
 Raise awareness and build capacity toward forest certification and
certification of forest products
 Promote reduced impacts logging in appropriate forest areas
 Encourage the planting of indigenous species with market value on
private or communal land including timber and fuel wood plts
(agroforestry)
Forest protection
• Forest Reserves are land areas that have been surveyed,
demarcated and gazetted. They can be gazetted either from
Trust land or from unalienated Government land. Forests
Reserves on government land are managed by the Kenya
Forest Service, while those on Trust Land are managed by
local authorities.
• Gazetted Forest Reserves on Government land amounted to
1,359,254 ha, while gazetted Forest Reserves on Trust lands
totalled 328,136 ha. Therefore, about 20% of the total area
gazetted as Forest Reserves.
Forest Conservancies
Key Divisions of Kenya Forest Service
• Natural Forest Conservation And Management This Division is
involved with conservation and management of natural forest
through the following;
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Eco-tourism development
Biodiversity Management
Water Shed Management
Community involvement through the Community Forest Associations
(CFA)
– Licensing of various activities and ventures taking place in natural
forests in accordance with good practices laid down in both the forest
and environment legislation.
Key Divisions of Kenya Forest Service
• Enforcement And Compliance Division (ENCOM) ENCOM is charged
with the provision of security for forest resources in the country
through enforcement of the Forest ACT 2005.
• This Division is headed by a commandant with 2,500 Rangers and
Officers serving in stations, bases, and at the KFS Headquarters.
• The specific roles played by ENCOM are:
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Forest Protection
Arresting and Prosecuting offenders
Collection of intelligence
Investigation of forest offences
Staff discipline and capacity development
Participation in national events involving the disciplined forces
Inspection of forest station, plantation and natural forests
Support to field officers in times of emergencies or security threats
Fire disaster preparedness and fire fighting
Key Divisions of Kenya Forest Service
• Plantation and Enterprise Division
– This division is involved in industrial forest plantations programme which is one
of the core activities of KFS.
– Currently there are approximately 125,000 hectares of industrial forest
plantations composed of mainly Cypress, Pines and Eucalyptus.
– Plantations are expected to be a major revenue earner for KFS when fully
operational.
– Sustained planting will be done through Plantation Establishment and
Livelihood Improvement Scheme (PELIS) which currently covers over 8,000
hectares.
– Streamlining of the sawmill industry has been done through pre-qualification of
suitable sawmillers. Already over 2790 sawmillers have been selected and this
is expected to create 20,000 direct jobs.
– The division has also rolled out a national forest inventory to establish the
existing quality and value of forests resources, as well as establish the country
Key Divisions of Kenya Forest Service
• Plantation and Enterprise Division
– This division is involved in industrial forest plantations programme which is one
of the core activities of KFS.
– Currently there are approximately 125,000 hectares of industrial forest
plantations composed of mainly Cypress, Pines and Eucalyptus.
– Plantations are expected to be a major revenue earner for KFS when fully
operational.
– Sustained planting will be done through Plantation Establishment and
Livelihood Improvement Scheme (PELIS) which currently covers over 8,000
hectares.
– Streamlining of the sawmill industry has been done through pre-qualification of
suitable sawmillers. Already over 2790 sawmillers have been selected and this
is expected to create 20,000 direct jobs.
– The division has also rolled out a national forest inventory to establish the
existing quality and value of forests resources, as well as establish the country
POLICY AND LEGISLATION ON NATURAL RESOURCES
• Forest Act 2005 (Refer previous notes)
• Forest Policy 2007
• The Wildlife (Conservation & Management) Act, Cap. 376 Of 1976
(Amended 1989, now Amendment Bill 2010)
• Antiquities & Monuments Act, Cap. 215 Of 1984
• Agriculture Act, Cap. 318 Of 1980 (Revised 1986) .. 10
• Water Act, Cap. 372 of 1951 (Revised 1972)
• Water Policy, 1999
• Fisheries Act, Cap. 378 Of 1989
• Timber Act, Cap. 386 Of 1972
• Chief’s Authority Act, Cap. 128 Of 1970 (Revised 1988)
• Trespass Act, Cap 294 Of 1963 (Revised 1982)
• Mining Act, Cap. 306 Of 1940 (Revised 1987)
POLICY AND LEGISLATION ON NATURAL RESOURCES
Forest Policy 2007
The key elements of the new policy are:1. A new forest legislation to implement the policy.
2. Expanded mandate in the management of all types of forests.
3. Involvement of forest adjacent communities and other stakeholders
in forest management and conservation.
4. Forest management planning will be based on an ecosystem
approach.
5. Appropriate incentives will be provided to promote sustainable use
and management of forest resources.
6. Proposed institutional transformation of the Forest Department into
a semi-autonomous Kenya Forest Service.
POLICY AND LEGISLATION ON NATURAL RESOURCES
Forest Policy 2007
SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES of forest policy
1. Contribute to poverty reduction, employment creation &
improvement of livelihoods through sustainable use, conservation
& management of forests and trees;
2. Contribute to sustainable land use through soil, water and
biodiversity conservation, and tree planting through the sustainable
management of forests and trees;
3. Promote the participation of the private sector, communities and
other stakeholders in forest management to conserve water
catchment areas, create employment, reduce poverty and ensure
the sustainability of the forest sector;
POLICY AND LEGISLATION ON NATURAL RESOURCES
Forest Policy 2007
SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES of forest policy
4. Promote farm forestry to produce timber, woodfuel & other forest
products;
5. Promote dryland forestry to produce woodfuel and to supply wood
and non-wood forest products;
6. Promote forest extension to enable farmers and other forest
stakeholders to benefit from forest management approaches and
technologies; and
7. Promote forest research, training and education to ensure a vibrant
forest sector.
Policy issues
SUSTAINABLE MANAGEMENT OF FORESTS AND TREES
• Indigenous Forests
• Farm Forestry
• Forest Plantations
• Dryland Forestry
• Local Authority Forests
• Private Forests
• Roadside tree planting
Policy issues
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FOREST PRODUCTS AND INDUSTRIES
Timber and Wood Products
Woodfuel
Non-wood Forest Products
Forests Industries
Forestry and Wealth Creation/Income generation
Trade in Forest Products .....................................................
Issues in Forest management
• Availability Of Data And Information On Forests for planning
– Physical features, biological resources (biodiversity, abundance, yields),
social, policy and legal framework (pop density, patterns of forest use, land
tenure, forest use & management, Management effectiveness), economic
context (what economic policies & market forces are influencing rates of
use of forest resources
• Implementation of Policy & Legislation (are they being enforced?)
• Management & Co-ordination of Implementing Agencies (is it
well coordinated??
• Forest Excisions
• Encroachment (agriculture, settlement, etc)
• Community Participation In Forest Management (is it enough??)
• Implications Of International Agreements On Forests (are they
working for us?? Are they domesticated nationaly??)
River Catchment studies
• The river catchment, or drainage basin, is all the land from the
mountain to to the seashore, drained by a single river and its
tributaries.
• Catchment areas vary greatly in size - a big river may have a
catchment area of several thousand square kilometres, whereas
a smaller tributary will have a catchment area of only a few
hectares.
• Catchments are separated from each other by watersheds. The
characteristics of any river (physical, chemical, biological) are
determined by the nature of the catchment and the activities ,
both human and natural, that take place in it.
• The Catchment Management process is a way of managing our
fishery environment in a sustainable manner i.e. "meeting the
needs of the present generation without compromising the
needs of future generations"
Hull
Rturn
River Catchment studies
• THE IMPORTANCE OF PLANTS
• In catchments which have not been cultivated or developed, the
ground cover or vegetation is still in place. Ground cover is
important for the following reasons:
• * Plants slow down water as is flows over the land (runoff)
allowing much of the rain to soak into the ground and replenish
pools of underground water. Water seeps from these aquafers
into rivers which are therefore usually perennial (flow
throughout the year).
River Catchment studies
• THE IMPORTANCE OF PLANTS
* Plants prevent soil erosion as their root hold soil in position,
preventing it from being washed away. IN addition plants break
the impact of a raindrop before it hits the soil, thus reducing its
erosive potential. Rivers running through an undisturbed
catchment are clean, erosion is slow, and limited to periods of
very high rainfall.
* Vegetation in wetlands and on the banks of rivers is of
particular importance. The roots of the reeds, sedges, trees,
shrubs and grasses growing in wetlands and next to rivers bind
the soil of the riverbank and prevent erosion whilst cleaning the
water and regulating its flow.
River Catchment studies
• What affects Catchments
Sea Level Rise
Land Use Change
Infrastructure
Development Growth
Industrial Sector Changes
Climate change
Poor planning
River Catchment studies
• DISTURBED CATCHMENTS
• Where plant cover in river catchments has been disturbed by
farming, industry and settlements, soil erosion increases. In
addition, without plants, runoff increases and the supply of
water to aquafers is reduced because less water soaks into the
ground. Consequently rivers do not have a continuous supply of
water from the aquafers and flow only in the rainy season. Much
of the deposition of silt into estuaries results from erosion of
riverbanks. When riverbank vegetation is remove, the banks are
at the mercy of the erosive forces of flood waters which scour
away the riverbank allowing the adjacent slope to collapse.
River Catchment studies
• CATCHMENT CONSERVATION
• A catchment conservation programme should include:
* protection of wetlands such as vleis and marshes;
* sound conservation practices on agricultural and forestry
lands, eg. all ploughing and planting should be on the contour;
riverbank vegetation should not be disturbed; lands should be
strip cropped;
* prevention of water pollution from informal settlements,
industry or agriculture;
* protection of riverbank vegetation.
River Catchment studies
• COORDINATING LOCAL ACTION
• A catchment is ideally suited to coordinated planning and
management, requiring cooperation between the many land
owners and residents in the catchment.
• A first step in encouraging collective action is the formation of a
catchment management committee, with representatives of all
major land users (eg. farmers, municipal and government
officials), which is guided by regional planners. This management
committee should survey the catchment, and investigate with
specialists the best methods of controlling problems.
River Catchment studies
• COORDINATING LOCAL ACTION
• It is important that all people in the catchment are involved in
each stage of the conservation programme, from planning to
execution, as they will be responsible for its success or failure.
Catchment management committees, which may be private,
provincial or national, are active in both rural and urban areas
Protected Resources
Protected Area
• An area of land and or sea especially dedicated to
the protection and maintenance of biological
diversity and of natural and associated cultural
resources and management through legal or other
effective means
• Although Pas meet the general purposes contained
in the above definition, in practice the precise
purposes which Pas are managed differed greatly e.g.
– Scientific research, wilderness protection, preservation of
species and genetic diversity, maintenance of
environmental services, protection of specific natural and
cultural features
Protected Areas
• Definition of IUCN Categories
– Ia: Strict Nature Reserve: PA managed mainly for
science
– Ib: Wilderness Area: PA managed mainly for
wilderness protection
– II: National Park: PA managed mainly for
ecosystem protection and recreation
– III: Natural monument: PA Managed mainly for
conservation of specific natural features
Protected Areas
• Definition of IUCN Categories
– IV: Habitat/Species Management Area: PA
managed for Conservation thro management
intervention
– V: Protected Landscape/Seascape: PA managed
mainly for landscape/seascape conservation and
recreation
– VI: Managed Resource PA: PA managed mainly for
sustainable use of natural ecosystems
Protected Areas
• Protected areas (PAs) are a traditional means
for pursuing wildlife management and have
become increasingly central to conservation
strategies
– How many National Parks and Reserves doe we
have in Kenya????
Wildlife Conservation
• Importance of Wildlife
– Economic value (foreign exchange earnings thro
tourism
– Ecological value – important for maintaining
ecological balance of the environment
– Nutritional and Medicinal value
– Socio-cultural Value (recreation, culture,
Land Use Conflicts
• Land is not only the basic aspect of subsistence for many people
around the world, it can also contain valuable structures and
resources on (or beneath) it.
• Land is a very strategic socio-economic asset, particularly in poor
societies where wealth and survival are measured by control of,
and access to, land.
• Demand for land is high therefore competing uses.
– Food and biomass production, housing, infrastructure and recreation all
compete for space, with impacts on our climate, biodiversity and ecosystem
services
• People often disagree as to the best way that areas should be
used. There will usually be advantages and disadvantages to each
way of using the land.
• Land Use Conflict typically occurs at the intersection of different
land uses, e.g Agricultural land,/Rural development, native
forest/Grazing Livestock/infrastructural development etc.
Land Use Conflicts
• A land-use conflict occurs when there are conflicting views on
land-use policies, such as when an increasing population creates
competitive demands for the use of the land, causing a negative
impact on other land uses nearby.
• Land Use Conflict typically occurs at the intersection of different
land uses, e.g. Agricultural land,/Rural development, native
forest/Grazing Livestock/infrastructural development etc.
•
Land use conflicts: Settlements
• Advantages
– New housing can be needed in rural areas
– Building the houses creates jobs
• Disadvantages
– Housing uses up the most fertile, lower land
– The spread of towns and cities can damage wildlife and
increase pollution
Land use conflicts: Forestry
• Advantages
–
–
–
–
Kenya will not need to import so much timber
It can stabilize soil and reduce erosion
Creates jobs
Other functions of forests???????
• Disadvantages
– Some people believe it spoils the look of the landscape
– It damages the habitat of the local fauna and flora
– Takes up land for settlement and agriculture????
•
Land use conflicts: Urban
• Two common types of land-use conflicts in urban areas :
– bunghole industrial or residential-transport land-use conflicts.
Advantages
– Creates jobs
– Increases economic growth
– Ensures infrastructural growth
– Incomes
Disadvantages
– can cause noise, air and water pollution.
– Apart from the noise and gases released by factories, pollution is also
caused by the vehicles which carry materials to and from factories,
which can cause incessant noises and smoke.
– Heavy road traffic also causes traffic congestion, affecting many
nearby residents.
– In addition to factories, the presence of main roads also affects
residents, causing the same problems as above.
Land use conflicts: Campsites
• Advantages
– Creates jobs and the tourists will spend money in the local area
– Encourages people to look after their local area as this will attract
more tourists
• Disadvantages
– Tourists can disturb the local people
– The jobs provided are often seasonal (high season)
– Large numbers of tourists can damage the countryside
•
Land use conflicts: Agriculture
• Advantages
–
–
–
–
Ensures food security
Creates jobs
Provides income
Provides market
• Disadvantages
– Could lead to clearing of forests
– Could pollute environment (noise, pesticides, erosion, overgrazing)
– Could make the countryside monotonous e.g. where monoculture is
practiced, loss of good view
– Lead to species loss (loss of their habitats
– Could introduce invasive species (e.g. through GMO crops)
– May lose cultural sites (shrines, sacred forests etc)
•
Addressing land use conflicts
• through planning and control of the changing production
system by making the choice and allocation of land use
activities consistent with the principles of sustainable
development.
• Better land use assessment and planning that factor all
various uses and advantages
• Better policies and land use plans
• Address security of land tenure/squatter issues
• Improve governance - minimize corruption and land grabbing
• Strike a balance between environmental and economic needs
LAST TOPIC
Aquatic environments (fresh water & marine)
• To Cover (very brief & not detailed):
• diversity and ecology of freshwater and
marine habitats and organisms,
• the impacts of humans on these
environments, and
• the conservation and management of these
critical resources
Aquatic environments (fresh water & marine)
• Aquatic environments make up >70% of the
Earth’s surface. They host a huge diversity of
life and ecosystems, many of which are vital to
man.
What are the basic needs of aquatic
biota?
•
•
•
•
CO2
O2
Sunlight
Nutrients- food &
minerals
What factors influence the availability
of those basic needs?
• Substances dissolved in waterNitrates, phosphates, potassium,
O2
• Suspended matter- (silt, algae)
can affect light penetration
• Depth
• Temperature
• Rate of flow
• Bottom characteristics (muddy,
sandy, or rocky)
• Internal convection currents
• Connection to or isolation from
other aquatic ecosystems.
Types of Aquatic Ecosystems
• Freshwater Ecosystems
– Standing Water- lakes &
ponds
– Moving Water- rivers &
streams
• Transitional Communities
– Estuaries
– Wetlands- bogs/fens,
swamps, marshes
• Marine Ecosystems
–
–
–
–
Shorelines
Barrier Islands
Coral Reefs
Open Ocean
Freshwater Ecosystems
• Usually 0.005% salt
– Some exceptions:
• Great Salt Lakes-
5-27% salt
• Dead Sea- 30% salt
• Moving water- high
elevations; cold; high O2;
trout; streamlined plants
• Standing water- lower
elevations; warmer; less O2;
bass, amphibians; cattails,
rushes
How is a lake stratified and what lives
in each level?
• Epilimnion- upper layer of warm
water; high light & O2; ex: water
striders, phyto- & zooplankton,
fish
• Thermocline (mesolimnion);
middle layer; medium light & O2;
ex: phyto- & zooplankton, fish
• Hypolimnion- lower layer of cold
water; lower light & O2; ex: fish
• Benthos- bottom level; no light &
little O2; ex: anaerobic bacteria,
leeches; insect larvae
• Littoral- near the shoreline;
cattails, rushes, amphibians, etc.
Transitional Communities
• ESTUARIES
• Where freshwater dumps
into ocean
• Brackish (less salty than
seawater)
• Has rich sediments that
often form deltas
• Productive & biodiverse
• Organisms adapted to
varying levels of salinity as
tide ebbs & flows
• “Nursery” for larval forms of
many aquatic species of
commercial fish & shellfish
Transitional Communities
• WETLANDS
• Land saturated at least part of the
year
• Swamps- have trees like bald
cypress; high productivity
• Marshes- no trees; tall grasses;
high productivity
• Bogs/Fens- may or may not have
trees; waterlogged soil with lots
of peat; low productivity
Swamp
Marsh
– Fens- fed by groundwater &
surface runoff
– Bogs- fed by precipitation
Bog
Fen
Importance of Wetlands
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Highly productive- get lots of
sunlight, ↑ plants =
↑ animals
Nesting, breeding ground for
migratory birds
Slows flooding by absorbing runoff
Silt settles, making water clearer &
nutrient rich
Trap & filter water
Natural chemical reactions neutralize
and detoxify pollutants
Gives H2O time to percolate thru soil
& replenish underground aquifers.
Threats- artificial eutrophication
draining, sedimentation via
construction
“Nature’s Septic Tank”
Marine Ecosystems
• SHORELINES
• Rocky coasts- great density &
diversity attached to solid rock
surface
• Sandy beaches- burrowing
animals
• Threats- due to hotels,
restaurants, homes on beach,
more plant life destroyed,
destabilizing soil, susceptible to
wind & water erosion
• Insurance high; danger of
hurricanes, erosion
• Build sea walls to protect people
but changes & endangers
shoreline habitat
Marine Ecosystems
• BARRIER ISLANDS
• Low, narrow offshore
islands
• Protect inland shores from
storms
• Beauty attracts developers
= developers destroy land
• New coastal zoning laws
protect future development
MARINE ECOSYSTEMS
• CORAL REEFS
• Clear, warm shallow seas
• Made up of accumulated
calcareous (made of calcium)
skeletons of coral animals
• Formation depends on light
penetration.
• Have a symbiotic relationship
with algae
• Very diverse, abundant
(rainforests of sea)
• Threats- destructive fishing
(cyanide & dynamite to stun fish),
pet trade; about 3/4ths have
been destroyed
What factors can alter aquatic
ecosystems?
• Natural Successionnormal cycle of pond
becoming forest
• Artificial Successionhumans add N & P to
water via fertilizer &
sewage causing
succession to happen
faster =
EUTROPHICATION
What factors can alter aquatic
ecosystems?
• Humans!
– Find food (siltation)
– Recreation
– Waste disposal
(pollution)
– Cooling of power plants
– Transportation
– Dams, canals
– Climate change