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Origins By 600, Byzantium and the Sasanids had been fighting for four centuries Their power broken by Arabs in the seventh century Arabia Nomadic Bedouin population Small kingdoms – some client to Byzantines Some pagan, Christian, Jewish Mecca – center of caravan trade Pilgrimage site because of Ka’ba (Kaaba) Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All rights reserved. Origins (cont.) Arabic language defined and linked Arabs Semitic tongue of Afro-Asiatic family Arabs divided by religion, blood feuds Shared a highly developed poetic idiom Islam not a religion of the desert Origins were in a commercial center First converts were Meccan town townsfolk and Yathrib (Medina) date farmers Most Arabs were pagans before conversion Caravans – connection to diverse cultures Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All rights reserved. Introduction Islamic civilization Last great world civilization to appear Creation of distinctive Islamic religious, social, and political institutions Within an Arab-dominated empire The story of evolution of these institutions into a cosmopolitan array of culture Derived from single prophetic event Muhammad’s proclamation of the Qur’an Gave Arabs a new unity Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All rights reserved. Muhammad the Qur’an Muhammad – 570-632 Orphan from Meccan Quraysh tribe Khadija Troubled by idolatry, worldliness Felt called to warn Arabs • About their disregard for morality • About the worship due God Called by Gabriel to be prophet of God Qur’an – “reciting” of God’s Word Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All rights reserved. Message of the Qur’an The Prophet is to warn people Against worship of false gods Against immorality • Especially injustice to poor, orphans, widows, and women in general Judgment Day Eternal punishment or eternal joy Recognition of God’s transcendence Islam – “submission” to God’s will Muslim – “submissive” or “surrendering” Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All rights reserved. Ethical Monotheism Ethical monotheism of Judaic and Christian tradition reached logical conclusion Strongly theocentric vision Absolute obedience to one god Prophets Noah, Abraham, Moses, Jesus Salih – nonbiblical Arabian figure Muhammad as final prophet Jews and Christians summoned to respond to moral imperatives of Qur’an Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All rights reserved. Early Career of Muhammad Largely ignored at first Others viewed him as a threat Hegira – “emigration” In 622 Muhammad called to Yathrib (Medina) • Settle dispute – five warring tribes Starting point of Islamic calendar Creation of a distinctive Islamic community (Umma) Arab Jews of Medina rejected his message Moving Muhammad to turn against them Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All rights reserved. Foundations Allegiance to the Umma Honesty in public and person affairs Modesty in personal habits Improved treatment of women Ritual ablution before prayer Daily prayer – 3 then later 5 times daily Tithe to support less fortunate Muslims Daytime fasting during Ramadan Hajj – pilgrimage to Mecca Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All rights reserved. Roots of Toleration Acceptance of Islamic political authority brought tolerance “Peoples of the Scripture” Jews and Christians who accepted Islamic rule Many alliances sealed with marriages Tiny band of Muslims bound together by Personal allegiance to Muhammad Submission (Islam) to God Membership in the Umma of “submitters” Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All rights reserved. Women in Early Islamic Society Qur’an improved status of women Prohibits female infanticide Outlines rights to inherit, own, and manage property Negotiate own marriage Negative Aspects No full equality – legitimizes patriarchal society Polygamy Seclusion Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All rights reserved. Birth of Caliphate Death of Muhammad in 632 No son or designated successor Challenge to the Umma Abu Bakr – r. 632-634 Caliph – (khalifa) successor Reestablished Medinan hegemony Umma was a new kind of supratribal community that demanded more than allegiance to a particular leader Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All rights reserved. Early Expansion Umar – r. 634-644 and Uthman – r. 644-656 Iran, Egypt, Fertile Crescent Last Sasanid ruler defeated in 651 Ali – r. 656-661 – Civil war Mu’awiya – r. 661-680 Islamic fleet – Cyprus, Sicily, Rhodes Constantinople besieged Raids into Spain in 711 Defeated at Poitiers by Charles Martel, 732 Arabic armies in Indus region in 710 Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All rights reserved. Factors of Success Weakened state of Byzantines and Sasanids New sense of unity Religious zeal Desire to extend Dar al-Islam Too much can be made of jihad Toleration – Jizya Temptation of greater prosperity elsewhere Astute policies of early leaders Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All rights reserved. New Islamic Order Expansion demanded new political, social, cultural reality Caliphate At first, succession similar to choosing shaykhs Change with Islamic influence • Caliph – khalifa “successor” • Imam – “leader” • Emir – “commander” First four caliphs associated with pristine purity Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All rights reserved. Umayya Caliphate 661-750 First civil war – 656-661 Mu’awiya – r. 661-680 Kinsman of Uthman Founded first dynastic caliphate Not viewed in same light as “rightly guided” caliphs Seen as too worldly by conservatives Would fall to Abbasids Dissension among Arab tribal factions, non-Arab resentment of Arab preference, Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All rights reserved. Ulama Religious leadership in Umma not with caliphs With Muslims recognized for piety and learning Sought as authorities Most concerned with preserving, interpreting, and applying the Qur’an Precedents from Meccan and Medinan practice Oral traditions Enduring pattern of education based on study under persons highest in chain of trustworthy Muslims linking current age to earliest Umma Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All rights reserved. Ulama (cont.) Ulama – “persons of right knowledge” Scholars who studied religious history • Personal legal decisions • Collective discussions of issues Shari’a – divine law Centers of Ulama – Medina, Mecca, Iraq Ulama as guardians of Muslim conscience Creation of a workable moral-legal system based on a scholarly elite Ulama shared leadership with rulers Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All rights reserved. Umma Strength of Qur’anic message was universalism New converts still second class “Clients” Diwan – army register • Perpetuated Arab precedence Dominance of Arabic language Early Persian-Arab tensions Persian cultural renaissance – impact on Arabs Different interpretations of the Umma Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All rights reserved. Kharijites Roots in first civil war 656-661 Kharijites - “seceders” from Ali’s camp Muslim policy on strict Qur’anic principles Total equality of the faithful Leader of the Umma should be best Muslim Rigorist view of membership Anyone who commits a major sin no longer a Muslim Moral imperatives of Muslim duty Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All rights reserved. Shi’a Relates to leadership of Umma Murder of Ali by Kharijite in 661 Murder of Ali’s son Husayn at Kaarbala, 680 Shi’at Ali – “partisans of Ali” Shi’ites believed Ali to be chosen successor Idea of divinely inspired knowledge Passed from Muhammad to heirs Leader of Islamic world should carry Muhammad’s blood and spiritual authority Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All rights reserved. Centrists Choice between Kharijites and Shi’a Most Muslims accepted a central position Sunnis – followers of the tradition (sunna) of the Prophet and Qur’an Broad middle spectrum of Muslims • Put communal solidarity and maintenance of the Islamic polity above purist tie to a particular theology Inclusive rather than exclusive Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All rights reserved. Sunni Foundations Basic ideas of Sunnis Umma is a theocratic entity • Qur’an • Muhammad’s precedence • Interpretive efforts and consensus of Muslims Caliph absolute temporal ruler Muslim – “There is no God but God, and Muhammad is God’s prophet.” Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All rights reserved. The High Caliphate Umayyad caliph Abd al-Malik 692 Victory in second civil war Consolidates power of caliph Era of political strength, cultural vibrancy, wealth, and centralization Height of caliphal power and splendor 786833 Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All rights reserved. Abbasid State Abbasid revolution ended Arab dominance Baghdad – capital – “city of peace” Eastward shift in cultural and political orientation Claimed descent from al-Abbas Height under Harun al-Rashid – r. 786-809 Mamluks – slave soldiers Caliphs eventually dominated by mamluks Alienation of Muslim populace Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All rights reserved. Society Deep division between rules and populace Typical of most Islamic societies Central power of Abbasids waned Provincial rulers still recognized authority Iraq and Iran saw full Islamization of local elite before mid-twelfth century Followed by Spain, North Africa, Syria Full Islamization diminished need for centralized caliphal power Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All rights reserved. Decline of the Caliphate Disputes over the succession of the Prophet Divided Muslims Spain, North Africa, Iran & Egypt established independent states and caliphates Rise of Shi’ite clan Seljuk sultans Figurehead caliphs Mongols kill last caliph 1258 Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All rights reserved. “Classical” Islamic Culture Abbasid rich cultural legacy Sophisticated tastes Thirst for knowledge Philosophy & Sciences Translation of Greek works Progress in astronomy, medicine Preservation of Greek works • Europe cultural backwater Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All rights reserved. Culture (cont.) Language and Literature Adab “manners” literature Historical and biographical writings Hadith Art and Architecture Adaptation of Graeco-Roman, Byzantine, and Iranian art Calligraphic motifs Iconoclasm Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All rights reserved.